True flies are insects of orders Diptera , names derived from Greek ?? - di - "two", and ??? ??? pteron "wings". The insects of this order only use a pair of wings to fly, hindwings have evolved into advanced mechanical organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational motion and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing about 1,000,000 species including horse flies, crane flies, ham and other flies, although only about 125,000 species have been described.
The fly has a moving head, with a pair of large compound eyes, and a mouth designed to poke and suck (mosquitoes, black flies and raid flies), or to lick and suck in other groups. Their wing arrangements give them incredible maneuverability in flying, and the claws and pads on their feet allow them to cling to a smooth surface. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis; Eggs are placed on larval and larval food sources, which do not have actual legs, develop in a protected environment, often in their dietary sources. A cocoon is a hard capsule from which an adult appears when ready to do so; flies mostly short-lived as adults.
Diptera is one of the major insect order and has important ecological and human importance. Flies are important pollinators, second only to Hymenopteran bees and their relatives. Flies may be one of the earliest evolutionary pollinators responsible for early plant pollination. Fruit flies are used as model organisms in the study, but less benign, mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, dengue fever, West Nile fever, yellow fever, encephalitis, and other infectious diseases; and house flies, commensurate with humans around the world, spreading food-borne diseases. Flies can be a nuisance especially in some parts of the world where they can occur in large numbers, buzzing and settling in the skin or eyes to bite or search for fluids. Larger flies such as tsetse flies and caterpillars cause significant economic damage to livestock. The Blowfly larvae, known as gentles, and other pellared larvae, known more generally as maggots, are used as fishing baits and as food for carnivorous animals. They are also used in medicine in debridement to clean wounds.
Video Fly
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Relationships with other insects
Dipterans are endopterygote, an insect that undergoes radical metamorphosis. They include Mecopterida, in addition to Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Lepidoptera and Trichoptera. The possession of a single pair of wings distinguishes true flies from other insects by "flying" in their name. However, some true flies like Hippoboscidae (louse fly) have become secondary wings.
The Cladogram represents the current consensus view.
Relationship between subgroup and family of flies
The first true true Truths are known to originate from Central Trias (about 240 million years ago), and they became widespread during the Central and Late Triassic. Modern flowering plants did not appear until the Cretaceous (about 140 million years ago), so the original sown must have a different source of nutrients other than nectar. Based on the appeal of many modern flies to the sparkling droplets, it has been suggested that they may have been fed the melons produced by the abundant sucking gum insects at the time, and the mouths are well adapted to soften and chew the crusty residue. The basal numbers on Diptera include the mysterious Deuterophlebiidae and Nymphomyiidae. Three episodes of evolutionary radiation are thought to have occurred based on the fossil record. Many of Diptera's new species were developed in Triass, some 220 million years ago. Many of the lower Brachycera appeared in Jurassic, some 180 million years ago. The third radiation occurred between Schizophora at the beginning of the Paleogen, 66 million years ago.
Diptera's phylogenetic position has become controversial. Monophyly holometabolous insects have long been accepted, with major orders defined as Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, and it is the relationship between these groups that has caused adversity. Diptera is widely regarded as a member of Mecopterida, along with Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Trichoptera (caddisflies), Siphonaptera (tick), Mecoptera (scorpionflies) and possibly Strepsiptera (crooked wing flies). Diptera has been grouped with Siphonaptera and Mecoptera in Antliophora, but this has not been confirmed by molecular studies.
Diptera is traditionally broken down into two subordos, Nematocera and Brachycera, distinguished by antenna differences. The Nematocera is recognized by their elongated body and many-segment, often hairy antenna represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. Brachycera has a more rounded body and a shorter antenna. Subsequent research has identified Nematocera as non-monophyletic with modern phylogeny placing Brachycera in a class of groups previously placed in Nematocera. The development of phylogenetic trees has been the subject of ongoing research. The following cladogram is based on the FLYTREE project.
Abbreviations used in cladogram:
- Cal = Calyptratae
- Cyc = Cyclorrhapha
- Ere = Eremoneura
- Mus = Muscomorpha
- Sch = Schizophora
- Tab = Tabanomorpha
Diversity
Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in the world other than Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as houseflies, flies, mosquitoes, insects, blackflies, pests and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the species diversity is actually much larger, with flies from many parts of the world not yet studied intensively. Subordo Nematocera generally includes small and slim insects with long antennas such as mosquitoes, insects, pest repellents and flies, while Brachycera includes a wider and stronger fly with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic. It is estimated that there are about 19,000 Diptera species in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in Afrotropic territory, 23,000 in Oriental territory and 19,000 in Australasian territory. While most species have limited distribution, some like flies ( Musca domestica ) are cosmopolitan. Gauromydas heros (Asiloidea), with a length up to 7 cm (2.8 inches), is generally regarded as the largest fly in the world, while the smallest is Euryplatea nanaknihali , which at 0 , 4 mm (0.016 inches) smaller than a grain of salt.
Brachycera is ecologically diverse, with many predators at the larval stage and some parasites. Animal parasitis includes molluscs, woody lice, millipedes, insects, mammals, and amphibians. Flies are the second largest pollinator group after Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and relatives). In wetter and colder environments, flies are significantly more important as pollinators. Compared to bees, they need less food because they do not have to provide their children. Many flowers that contain low nectar and those who have evolved trap traps depend on flies. It is estimated that some of the earliest pollinators of the plants may have flown.
The greatest diversity of annoying bugs is found among flies, especially in the Cecidomyiidae family (bile tramps). Many flies (most important in the Agromyzidae family) lay eggs in mesopil leaf tissues with larvae feed between the surfaces that make up the blisters and mines. Some families are eating mycophagous or mushrooms. These include caves that reside in Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) whose larvae are the only ones shown with bioluminescence. The Sciaridae is also a mushroom feeder. Some plants are pollinated by flies eating mushrooms that visit infected male mushroom flowers.
Larvae Scalaris Megaselia (Phoridae) is almost omnivorous and consumes substances such as paint and shoe polish. Coastal fly larvae (Ephydridae) and some Chironomidae survive in extreme environments including glaciers (Diamesa sp., Chironomidae), hot springs, geysers, salt pools, sulfur pools, septic tanks and even crude oil ( Helaeomyia petrolei ). Adult fly fly (Syrphidae) is famous for mimicry and their larvae adopt diverse lifestyles including being inquiline scavengers inside a social insect's nest. Some brachycerans are agricultural pests, some animals and humans bite and suck their blood, and some infectious diseases.
Maps Fly
Anatomy and morphology
Flies are adjusted for air movement and usually have short, slender bodies. The first tagma flies, head, bear eyes, antennae, and mouth (labrum, labium, lower jaw, and upper jaw form mouth). The second tagma, thorax, bears the wings and contains the flying muscles in the second segment, which are enormously enlarged; the first and third segments have been reduced to a collar-like structure, and the third segment bears the halteres, which help balance the insects during flight. The third tagma is an abdomen consisting of 11 segments, some of which may be fused, and with 3 modified front segments for reproduction.
The fly has a moving head with a pair of large compound eyes on the side of the head, and in most species, three small oselus at the top. The compound eye may be adjacent or widely separated, and in some cases divided into back and ventral areas, possibly to assist in the swarming behavior. A well-developed but variable antenna, which is like a thread, hairy or a comb like in a different family. His mouth was adapted for piercing and sucking, as in black flies, mosquitoes and robbers, and to hit and suck like many other groups. The female horse flies using the mandible and jaw like a knife to make a cross-shaped incision in the skin of the host and then vomit the flowing blood. The intestine includes a large diverticulae, allowing insects to store small amounts of fluid after meals.
For the control of visual subjects, the optical fly flow field is analyzed by a group of motion sensitive neurons. Part of this neuron is thought to be involved in using optical flow to estimate self-motion parameters, such as yaw, roll, and sideward translations. Other neurons are thought to be involved in analyzing the contents of the visual scene itself, such as separating the figures from the ground using motion parallax. H1 neurons are responsible for detecting horizontal movements across the visual plane of flies, allowing flies to produce and guide the stable correction of midflight motors with respect to yaw. Oselus is concerned in detecting changes in light intensity, allowing flies to react quickly to an object's approach.
Like other insects, flies have chemoreceptors that detect smells and flavors, and mechanoreceptors that respond to touch. The third segment of the antenna and the maxillary palps bear the ultimate olfactory receptor, while the gustatory receptors are in the labium, pharynx, legs, marginal wings and female genitals, allowing flies to taste their food by walking on it. The taste receptor in the woman at the end of the stomach receives information about the appropriateness of a site for ovipositing. Blood-feeding flies have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to accommodate in their host, and many blood-sucking flies can detect increased concentrations of carbon dioxide occurring near large animals. Some tachinid flies (Ormiinae) which are bush cicada parasitoids, have voice receptors to help them find their singing hosts.
Diptera has a pair of front wings on a mesothorax and a pair of halteres, or reduce the rear wing, on a metathorax. Further adaptations for aviation are the reduction in the number of neural ganglia, and the concentration of neural networks in the thorax, the most extreme feature in the highly-derived Muscomorpha infraorde. Some species of flies are amazing because they can not fly. The only other insect arrangement that has a pair of right and functional wings, other than the dumbbell shape, is Strepsiptera. In contrast to flies, Strepsiptera brings dumbbells to the mesothorax and their flight wings in metathorax. Each of the six-foot flies has a distinctive insect structure of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, with tarsus in many cases divided into five tarsomers. At the end of the leg is a pair of claws, and among these is a cushion-like structure known as a pulvili that gives adhesion.
The stomach shows considerable variability among members of the order. It consists of eleven segments in a primitive group and ten segments in a larger group, the tenth and eleventh segments have been fused. The last two or three segments are adapted for reproduction. Each segment consists of a dorsal and a ventral sclerite, connected by an elastic membrane. In some women, sclerites are rolled into flexible telescopic ovipositors.
Flights
Flies are capable of large maneuvers during flight due to the presence of haltere. It acts as a gyroscopic organ and rapidly oscillates in time with the wings; they act as a balance and guidance system by providing quick feedback to the wing-steering muscles, and flies removed from their dumbbell can not fly. The wings and the dumbbell move in tune but the amplitude of each wing slice is independent, allowing flies to spin to the side. Fly wings attach to two types of muscles, which are used to turn it on and another set is used for good control.
Flies tend to fly in a straight line and then make rapid changes of direction before continuing on different straight paths. A change in direction is called a saccade and usually involves a 90 ° angle, which is achieved in 50 milliseconds. They are initiated by visual stimuli when the flies observe the object, the nerves then activate the steering muscles in the chest causing slight changes in the wing movement that produce sufficient torque to spin. Detecting this in four or five wingbeats, the dumbbell triggers the trigger and the fly moves in a new direction.
Flies have fast reflexes that help their escape from predators but their low flying speeds are very low. Dolichopodids fly in the genus response of Condylostylus in less than 5 milliseconds to the flash of a camera by taking flight. In the past, flying reindeer bots, Cephenemyia , claimed to be one of the fastest insects based on estimates made visually by Charles Townsend in 1927. This claim, speeds of 600 to 800 miles per hour, is regularly repeated until proven physically impossible and wrong by Irving Langmuir. Langmuir suggested an approximate speed of 25 miles per hour.
Although most flies live and fly close to the ground, some are known to fly at altitudes and some like Oscinella (Chloropidae) are known to be dissolved by winds at altitudes of up to 2,000 feet and over long distances. Some hover flying like Metasyrphus corollae have been known to perform long flights in response to populations of aphid fever.
Fly fly flies like Cuterebra, many fly flies, bee fly (Bombyliidae) and fruit flies (Tephritidae) defend the area where they are involved in air pursuit to repel disturbing males and other species. While these areas can be held by men individually, some species form lex with many men gathered in a display. Some flies maintain airspace and others form dense herds that retain stationary locations in connection with landmarks. Lots of flies fly when swarming.
Life cycle and development
Diptera undergoes complete metamorphosis with four distinct stages of life - eggs, larvae, pupae and adults.
Larva
In many flies, long larval stages and adults may have a short life. Most of the punched larvae develop in a protected environment; many are aquatic and others are found in damp places such as carcasses, fruits, vegetables, fungi and, in the case of species of parasites, in their host. They tend to have thin cuticles and become dry if exposed to air. Regardless of Brachycera, most of the infected larvae have a sclerotinised head capsule, which can be reduced to residual mouth hooks; Brachycera, however, has a soft, gelatinized head capsule whose scleres are reduced or lost. Many of these larvae pull their heads into their thorax.
Several other anatomical differences exist between Nematocera and Brachycera larvae. Especially in Brachycera, little demarcation is seen between the thorax and the stomach, although demarcation can be seen in many Nematocera, such as mosquitoes; in Brachycera, the head of the larva can not be clearly distinguished from other body parts, and few, if any, sclerites are present. Informally, such brachyceran larvae are called maggots, but the term is not technical and is often applied indifferently to fly larvae or insect larvae in general. The eyes and antenna of brachyceran larvae are reduced or absent, and the stomach also does not have a cerci-like complement. This lack of features is an adaptation to foods such as carrion, detritus decay, or host tissue surrounding endoparasites. Nematoceran larvae generally have well-developed eyes and antennas, while Brachyceran larvae are reduced or modified.
Catfish larvae do not have jointed, "true legs", but some of the larvae are harvested, such as the species Simuliidae, Tabanidae and Vermileonidae, have been shown to adapt to hold the substrate in flowing water, host tissue or prey. The majority of dipterans are egg-laying and egg-laying, but some species are ovoviviparous, where larvae begin development in eggs before hatching or vivipar, hatching and maturing larvae in the mother's body before being externally precipitated. These are found mainly in groups that have larvae depending on short-lived or accessible food sources for short periods. This is widespread in some families such as Sarcophagidae. In Hylemya strigosa (Anthomyiidae) the larvae moult to the second instar before hatching, and on the female Termitoxenia has an incubation pouch, and the fully developed third instar larva is deposited by the adult and almost immediately pupates without the larval stage of free eating. The tsetse flies (as well as other Glossinidae, Hippoboscidae, Nycteribidae and Streblidae) exhibit adenotrophic viviparity; A single fertilized egg is stored in the fallopian tubes and grows feed larvae on glandular secretions. When an adult, the female finds a place with soft soil and the larvae work out of the fallopian tubes, burying themselves and pupates. Some flies such as Lundstroemia parthenogenetica (Chironomidae) reproduce with thelytokous parthenogenesis, and some bile have larvae that can produce eggs (paedogenesis).
Pupa
Cocoon takes various forms. In some groups, especially Nematocera, pupae are intermediaries between larvae and adult forms; The pupa is described as "obtect", having a future complement that is seen as a structure attached to the pupa's body. The outer surface of the pupa may be rough and bear thorns, respiratory features or locomotive paddle. In another group, described as "coarctate", the complement is not visible. In this case, the outer surface is the puparium, formed from the skin of the last larva, and the pupa actually hidden inside. When an adult insect is ready to emerge from this harsh and dry-resistant capsule, it inflates the balloon-like structure in its head, and forces the way out.
Adult
The adult stage is usually short, its function is only to mate and lay eggs. Male male genitals are rotated to varying degrees of position found in other insects. In some flies, this is temporary rotation during mating, but in some flies, this is the permanent torque of organs that occur during the cocoon stage. This torque may cause the anus to be under the genitals, or, in the case of 360 Â ° torque, to the sperm ducts wrapped around the intestine and external organs in their ordinary positions. When the fly mate, the male initially flies over the female, facing the same direction, but then turns to face in the opposite direction. This forces men to lie flat on their backs to keep their genitals in touch with women, or male genital torsion allows men to mate while remaining upright. This causes flies to have more reproductive ability than most insects, and faster. Flies occur in large populations because of their ability to mate effectively and quickly during the breeding season.
Ecology
As insects everywhere, the pauper plays an important role at various levels of trophic both as a consumer and as a prey. In some groups larvae supplement their development without eating, and in others adults do not feed. Larvae can be herbivores, scavengers, decomposers, predators or parasites, with the consumption of decaying organic matter into one of the most common eating behaviors. Fruit or detritus is consumed in conjunction with the associated microorganisms, a filter like a filter in the pharynx used to center the particles, while the meat-eating larvae have a mouth hook to help chop their food. The larvae of some groups feed on or in living tissues of plants and fungi, and some of them are serious agricultural plant pests. Some aquatic larvae consume algae films that form underwater in rocks and plants. Many parasitoid larvae grow inside and ultimately kill other arthropods, while parasitic larvae can attack vertebrate hosts.
While many aquatic or aquedic larvae live in closed terrestrial locations, the majority of adults live on the ground and are able to fly. Most of them eat nectar or plant or animal exudates, such as melons, whose mouths adapt. Flies feeding vertebrate blood have sharp sticks that penetrate the skin, insects that enter anticoagulant saliva and absorb blood flow; in this process, certain diseases can be transmitted. The flying bot (Oestridae) has evolved into a mammalian parasite. Many species complete their life cycle within their host's body. In many groups are milled, huddling is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects clustered in certain locations; These insects are mostly male, and the herd can serve the purpose of making their location more visible to women.
Anti-predator adaptation
Flies are eaten by other animals at all stages of their development. Eggs and larvae are parasitic by other insects and eaten by many creatures, some of which specialize in eating on flies but most of which consume them as part of a mixed diet. Birds, bats, frogs, lizards, dragonflies and spiders include predators of flies. Many flies have evolved to resemble mimetics that help their protection. Batesian mimicry is widespread with many flies that resemble bees and wasps, ants and some species of tephritid fruit fly resembling spiders. Some hoverfly species are myrmecophilous, their young live and grow in ant nests. They are protected from ants by mimicking the chemical odors given by members of the ant colony. Bee bombyliid flies like Bombylius major are short, round, hairy, and clear like bees when they visit flowers for nectar, and possibly Batesian mimics bees.
In culture
Symbolism
Flies play various symbolic roles in different cultures. This includes positive and negative roles in religion. In Navajo's traditional religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being. In Christian demonology, Beelzebub is a vicious fly, "Lord of the Flies", and the god of the Philistines.
Flies have appeared in the literature since ancient Sumerian. In the Sumerian poem, the flies helped Inanna the goddess when her husband Dumuzid was pursued by the devil galla. In the Mesopotamian version of the flood myth, dead bodies floating in the water compared to flies. Later, the gods are said to swarm "like flies" around Utnapishtim's hero's bid. The flies appear in the Old Babylonian seals as a symbol of Nergal, the god of death. The oval-shaped lazy layers are often worn in ancient Mesopotamia, along with other flying jewels.
In Prometheus Bound , associated with the tragic playwright Athena Aeschylus, a seducer sent by Zeus Hera's wife chases and tortures Io's mistress, who has turned into a cow and is constantly monitored by a hundred eyes of the Argus herders : "Io: Ah! Hah! Again puncture, stabbing gadfly-sting! O earth, earth, hide, hollow shape - Argus - evil - a hundred eyes." William Shakespeare, inspired by Aeschylus, had Tom o'Bedlam in King Lear , "Who is deceived by the devil through fire and through fire, through ford and whirlpool, o'er swamp and quagmire", driven furiously because of the constant pursuit. At Antony and Cleopatra , Shakespeare also likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from the Actium battlefield to a cow chased by a seducer. More recently, in 1962, biologist Vincent Dethier wrote To Know a Fly , introducing a general reader to the behavior and physiology of flies.
Flies appear in popular culture in concepts such as filming documentaries in film and television production. The metaphorical name indicates that the event is clearly visible, because a fly might see it. The fly has inspired the design of miniature flying robots. The 1993 film Steven Spielberg Jurassic Park relies on the idea that DNA can be preserved in the entrails of the petrified blood-sucking fly in amber, although its mechanism has been ignored by scientists.
Economic interests
Dipterans are an important insect group and have a great impact on the environment. Some leaf miners (Agromyzidae), fruit flies (Tephritidae and Drosophilidae) and bile (Cecidomyiidae) are agricultural plant pests; others such as tsetse flies, worm worms and bots (Oestridae) attack cattle, cause injury, spread disease, and create significant economic hazards. See article: Parasitic flies of domestic animals. Some can even cause myiasis in humans. Others such as mosquitoes (Culicidae), black flies (Simuliidae) and drainage fly (Psychodidae) have an impact on human health, acting as a vector of major tropical diseases. Among these, Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria, filariasis, and arbovirus; Aedes aegypti mosquito carrying dengue fever and virus Zika; black flies carry river blindness; sand flies carry leishmaniasis. Other dipterans are a nuisance to humans, especially when present in large numbers; these include house flies, which contaminate food and spread food-borne diseases; pest repellents and rakes (Ceratopogonidae) and house flies and flies are stable (Muscidae). In the tropics, eye flies (Chloropidae) who visit the eye for fluids can be a nuisance in some seasons.
Many dipterans serve a useful role for humans. Flies, flies and shredded mushrooms (Mycetophilidae) are carrion eaters and help in decay. Robber flies (Asilidae), tachinids (Tachinidae) and dagger flies and balloon flies (Empididae) are predators and parasitoids from other insects, helping to control various pests. Many dipterans such as bee flies (Bombyliidae) and hoverflies (Syrphidae) are plant pollinators.
Usage
Drosophila melanogaster, fruit fly, has long been used as a model organism in research because of the ease with which it can be raised and raised in the laboratory, its small genome, and the fact that many of its genes have peers in higher eukaryotes. A large number of genetic studies have been conducted on this species; this has a major impact on the study of gene expression, gene regulation mechanisms and mutations. Other studies have investigated physiology, microbial pathogenesis and development among other research topics. The study of relationships dipged by Willi Hennig helps in the development of cladistics, a technique he applied to morphological characters but is now adapted for use with molecular sequences in phylogenetics.
Maggots found on corpses are useful for forensic entomologists. Maggot species can be identified by their anatomical features and by matching their DNA. Maggots from various species of flies visit corpses and carcasses at a fairly clear time after the death of the victim, and so do their predators, such as the beetle in the Histeridae family. Thus, the presence or absence of certain species provides evidence for the time since death, and sometimes other details such as the place of death, when species are confined to certain habitats such as forests.
Several species of maggots such as blowfly larvae (gentles) and bluebottle larvae (casters) are cultured commercially; they are sold as bait in fishing, and as food for carnivorous animals (kept as pets, in zoos, or for research) such as some mammals, fish, reptiles, and birds. It has been suggested that fly larvae can be used on a large scale as food for chicken, pork, and cultivated fish. However, consumers are opposed to the entry of insects in their diet, and the use of insects in animal feed remains illegal in areas such as the EU.
Fly larvae can be used as a biomedical tool for wound care and care. Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is the use of flyworm larvae to remove dead tissue from the wound, most often amputated. Historically, it has been used for centuries, whether intentional or unintentional, on the battlefield and in the early hospital environment. Removing dead tissue promotes cell growth and healthy wound healing. Larvae also have biochemical properties such as antibacterial activity found in their secretions as they feed. These drug maggots are a safe and effective treatment for chronic wounds.
Sardinian cheese casu marzu is exposed to flies known as cheese attackers such as Piophila casei, a member of the Piophilidae family. The digestive activity of fly larvae softens the cheese and modifies the aroma as part of the maturation process. At one time the EU authorities banned the sale of cheese and it became difficult to find, but the ban has been lifted on the grounds that cheese is a traditional local product made with traditional methods.
Note
References
Further reading
- Blagoderov, V.A., Lukashevich, E.D. & amp; Mostovski, M.B. 2002. Ordering Diptera. In: Rasnitsyn, A.P. and Quicke, D.L.J. Insect History , Kluwer pp.-227-240.
- Colless, D.H. & amp; McAlpine, D.K. 1991 Diptera (fly) , pp.Ã, 717-786. In: Entomology Division. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Canberra (sponges.), Australian Insects . Press University of Melbourne.
- Hennig, Willi Diptera (Zweifluger). Handb. Zool. Berl . 4 (2) (31): 1-337. General introduction with a key for the World Family. In Germany.
- Oldroyd, Harold The Natural History of Flies . W. W. Norton. 1965.
- SÃÆ' Â © man, Eugène Diptera: recueil d'etudes hayques et systematiques sur les Dipteres du Globe (Collection of biological and systematic studies on Diptera Dunia). 11 vol. Part of Ensiklopedie Entomologique , Serie B II: Diptera. 1924-1953.
- SÃÆ' Â © man, Eugène La Biologie des Dipteres 1950.
- Thompson, F. Christian. "Source for the World's Biosystematic Database Diptera (Flies)" (PDF) . United States Department of Agriculture, Systematic Entomology Laboratory. Archived from the original on September 18, 2015. CS1 maint: BOT: unknown original url status (link)
External links
General
- Systema Dipterorum Database
- The Diptera.info portal with galleries and discussion forums
- FLYTREE - diffused filogene
- The Dipterists Forum - The Society to learn the flies
- BugGuide
- The Fossil Dipos World Catalog
- Project Life Tree
Anatomy
- Fly: Anatomy Atlas at CSIRO
- Draw a Wing venation
Describers
- Flyer names fly
- Dipterorum System Nomination
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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