Chariot racing (Greek: ??????????? Ã, harmatodromia , Latin: ludi circenses ) is one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine sports. Chariot racing is dangerous for drivers and horses because they often suffer serious injuries and even death, but this danger adds to the excitement and interest of the audience. Chariot races can be watched by women, who are prohibited from watching many other sports. In the form of Roman-style racecars, teams represent various financial support groups and sometimes compete for highly skilled driver services. As in modern sports such as football, spectators generally choose to support one team, identify themselves with their wealth, and violence sometimes breaks between competing factions. Competition is sometimes politicized, when teams become associated with competing social or religious ideas. This helps explain why the Roman emperor and then Byzantium took over the team and appointed many officials to keep an eye on them.
The sport faded in the West after the fall of Rome. It survived for a time in the Byzantine Empire, where traditional Roman factions continued to play an important role for several centuries, gaining influence in political affairs. Their rivalry culminated in the Nika riots, which marked a gradual decline in sport.
Video Chariot racing
Ancient Greek Era
Initial train races
It is not known exactly when the horse carriage race begins, but it may be as old as the chariot itself. It is known from the artistic evidence on pottery that the sport exists in the Mycenaean world, but the first literary reference to the train race is one that is described by Homer, at the funeral game of Patroclus. The participants in this race are Diomedes, Eumelus, Antilochus, Menelaus, and Meriones. The race, one round around a tree stump, was won by Diomedes, who received a slave woman and a cauldron as his gift. The horse-drawn carriage is also referred to as the event that founded the Olympics; according to one legend, mentioned by Pindar, King Oenomaus challenged the applicants for his daughter, Hippodamia, for the race, but was defeated by Pelops, who founded the Olympics in honor of his victory.
Olympics
In the ancient Olympics, as well as other Panhellenic Matches, there are four horses (tethrippon, Greek: ????????) and two horses ( synoris , Greece: ?? ?????) horse-drawn carriage, which is basically the same apart from the number of horses. The first train racing event was added to the Olympics in 680 BC with games progressing from one day to two days to accommodate new events (but not, in fact, establishment events). The horse-drawn carriage is not as prestigious as the 195 meters ( stadium, Greece: ???????) race, but it is more important than other horse racing events such as horse racing, dropped from the very early Olympics.
The race itself is held at the hippodrome, which hosts horse-drawn carriages and horseback riding. Single horse racing known as "keles" ( keles , Greek: ?????). Hippodrome is located in the southeast corner of the Olympia shelter, in a large flat area south of the stadium and runs almost parallel to the last. Until now, the exact location is unknown, as it was buried by several meters of sedimentary material from the River Alfeios. In 2008, however, Annie Muller and staff from the German Archeology Institute used the radar to find a large, rectangular structure similar to Pausanias's description. Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the second century AD, described this monument as a large, long, flat, 780 meters long and 320 meters wide (four stadia lengths and one stade i> four plethra wide). Racecourse elongates longitudinally divided into two tracks with a stone or a wooden barrier, embolon . All horses or trains run in one lane to the east, then turn to the embolon and back west. Distance varies by event. The racecourse is surrounded by natural (in the north) and artificial (south and east) banks for the audience; a special place is reserved for judges on the western side of the northern bank.
The race begins with a procession to the hippodrome, while a preacher announces the names of the driver and owner. Tethrippon consists of twelve laps around the hippodrome, with sharp curves around the post at both ends. Various mechanical tools are used, including the initial gates ( hyspleges , Greek: ?????????? singular: hysplex, Greece: ???????) which is relegated to the start of the race. According to Pausanias, it was created by the architect of Cleoitas, and staggered so the train outside started the race earlier than it was inside. The race does not start properly until the last gate is opened, where each horse cart will more or less line up next to each other, although starting from the outside will run faster than the center. Other mechanical devices known as "hawks" and "dolphins" were raised to indicate that the race had begun, and was revealed as the race went on to indicate the number of remaining rounds. These may be bronze carvings of the animals, which are mounted on poles at the starting line.
In many cases, owners and drivers of horse-drawn carriages are different people. In 416 BC, the general of Athens Alcibiades had seven trains in the race, and came in first, second, and fourth; obviously, he could not possibly race all seven chariots himself. Philip II of Macedonia also won the chariot race in an attempt to prove that he was not a barbarian, even if he himself drove the train, he would likely be considered inferior to a barbarian. The Poet Pindar praised Herodote's courage from Thebes, however, to ride his own chariot. This rule also means that women can win the race through possession, regardless of the fact that women are not allowed to participate in or even watch the Olympics. This is rare, but a noteworthy example is Spartan Cynisca, daughter of Archidamus II, who won the horse-drawn carriage race twice. Chariot racing is a way for Greeks to show their prosperity in the game. The case of Alcibiades shows also that racecars are an alternative route to public exposure and fame for the rich.
The coachman is usually a member of the railway owner's family or, in most cases, a slave or a hired professional. Riding a racecourse requires unusual strength, skill, and courage. However, we know very few train names, and the triumphal songs and sculptures regularly get them out of the account. Unlike other Olympic events, the coachman did not appear naked, probably for safety reasons because the dust was kicked by horses and trains, and the possibility of a bloody collision. The racer wore an armor called the xystis . It falls to the ankle and is tied high on the waist with a plain belt. Two high crossing ropes at the top of the back prevent xystis from "balloon" during the race.
The train itself is a modified chariot, basically a wooden carriage with two wheels and an open back, though the current horse-drawn carriage is no longer used in combat. The driver's feet were held in place, but the wagon stopped at the axle, so the ride was bumpy. The most interesting part of the horse-drawn race, at least for the audience, is the bend at the end of the hippodrome. These turns are very dangerous and often deadly. If the horse-drawn carriage has not been destroyed by an opponent before the turn, the train may be upside down or crushed (along with the horse and its driver) by the other train as they get around the post. Deliberately running into an opponent to cause him to fall is technically illegal, but nothing can be done about it (at the funeral game of Patroclus, Antilochus actually causes Menelaus to fall in this way,) and the accident is likely to happen by chance.
Other festivals
As a result of the rise of Greek cities in the classical period, other major festivals appeared in Asia Minor, Magna Graecia, and the mainland provided an opportunity for athletes to gain fame and fortune. In addition to the Olympics, the most respected are the Isthmian Matches at Corinth, the Nemean Games, the Pythian Games at Delphi, and the Panathenaic Games in Athens, where four horse race winners are given 140 amphorae olive oil (much sought after and prized in ancient times). Prizes in other competitions include corn in Eleusis, bronze shields at Argos, and silver liners in Marathon. Another form of the racecourse at Panathenaic Games is known as Maps Chariot racing
Roman Era
The Romans probably borrowed the Etruscan racecars as well as the racecourse, which they themselves borrowed from the Greeks, but the Romans were also directly influenced by the Greeks. According to Roman legend, horse-drawn carriage was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 BC as a way of distracting the Sabine men. Romulus sent invitations to neighboring cities to celebrate the Consualia festival, which included horse racing and horse-drawn carriages. While the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle, Romulus and his men confiscated and took the women of Sabine, who became the wives of the Romans. The Chariot race was part of several Roman religious festivals, and on this occasion preceded by a circensis parade featuring coachmen, musicians, costumed dancers, and images of the gods. While the entertainment value of the horse-drawn race tends to cover all holy purposes, in the end of ancient times the Fathers of the Church still see them as traditional "pagan" practices, and advise Christians not to participate.
In ancient Rome, horse-drawn races usually took place in the circus. The main center of racing is the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill, which can accommodate 250,000 people. It was the earliest circus in the city of Rome. The circus is supposedly dated to the earliest times in the city, but Julius Caesar built it around 50 BC with a length and width of about 650 meters (2,130 feet) and 125 meters (410 feet). One end of the track is more open than others, because this is where the train is lined up to start the race. The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres , equivalent to Greek hysplex . It staggered like hysplex , but in a slightly different way since the center of the Roman racing track also included the median (the spinae ). The carceres take the end of the indentation of the track, where - before the races are loaded behind the spring loaded gate. Normally, when the train is ready for the emperor (or whoever hosts the race, if outside Rome) drops a fabric known as mappa, marks the beginning of the race. The gates will open at the same time, allowing a fair start for all participants.
Once the race begins, the train can move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponent to hit spinae (single spina ). At the top of the spinae stands small tables or frames supported on pillars, as well as small pieces of marble in the form of eggs or dolphins. The spina eventually becomes very complicated, with sculptures and obelisks and other art forms, but the addition of some of these ornaments has one unfortunate result: they block the viewer's view in the lower seat. At both ends of the spine is the meta, or turning point, which consists of large gilded columns. The spectacular lacerations in which the destroyed and deformed trains and the defective horse are called the Latin word naufragia, which means also the "shipwreck."
The race itself is very similar to its Greek counterpart, although there are usually 24 races each day which, during the fourth century, occur in 66 days each year. However, the race only consists of 7 laps (and then 5 laps, so there can be more races per day) instead of 12 laps of the Greek race. Roman style is also more money-oriented; the racer is professional and there is wider bet in the audience. There are four horse carts ( quadrigae ) and two horse-drawn carriages ( bigae ), but the race of four horses is more important. In rare cases, if a driver wants to show off his skills, he can use up to 10 horses, although this is very impractical.
The techniques and clothing of Roman coachmen differed significantly from those used by the Greeks. The Roman riders wrapped around their waists, while the Greeks took control of their hands. Because of this, the Romans could not let go of control in a collision, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they released themselves. To cut the bridle and prevent getting dragged in the event of an accident, they bring falx , a curved knife. They also wear helmets and other protective gear. In each race, there may be a number of teams prepared by each faction, who will work together to maximize their chances of victory by conspiring against the opponent, forcing them out of the preferred track or depriving them of concentration and exposing themselves to accidents and injuries. Spectators can also play a role because there is evidence that they throw a "curse" of nail-studded amulets on their favorite teammate team.
Another important difference is that the coachmen themselves, aurigae , are regarded as winners, although they are usually also slaves (as in the Greek world). They received a series of laurel leaves, and probably some money; if they win enough races, they can buy their freedom. The driver can become a celebrity throughout the Empire just by surviving, because the life expectancy of a coachman is not too high. One of the celebrity drivers is Scorpus, who won over 2000 races before being killed in a collision in meta when he was about 27 years old. The most famous of all is Gaius Appuleius Diocles who won 1,462 of 4,257 races. When Diocles retired at age 42 after a 24-year career, his victory was reported to reach 35,863,120 sesterces ($ US 15 billion), making him the highest paid sports star in history. The horses, too, can become celebrities, but their life expectancy is also low. The Romans kept detailed statistics of names, breeds, and pedigree of famous horses.
The free Circus seats for the poor, which at the time of the Empire had little else to do, because they were no longer involved in political or military affairs like what happened in the Republic. The rich can pay for a shady seat where they have a better view, and they may also spend much of their time betting on the race. The circus is the only place where the emperor shows himself in front of the people gathered in large numbers, and where the latter can manifest their affection or anger. The imperial box, called pulvinar in the Circus Maximus, connects directly to the imperial palace.
The driver's outfit is color-coded according to his faction, which will help the distant audience to track the progress of the race. According to Tertullian, initially there were only two factions, White and Red, sacred for winter and summer respectively. Fully developed, there are four factions, Red, White, Green, and Blue. Each team can have up to three horse-drawn carriages each in the race. Members of the same team often collaborate against each other against other teams, for example, to force them to hit spina (legal tactics and encourage). Drivers can move teams, like athletes who can be traded to different teams today.
The rivalry between the Reds and Whites had been developed in 77 BC, when during the funeral for Red's driver, the Reds supporters threw themselves into a pile of firewood riders. No writer at the time, however, referred to these factions as official organizations, as will be explained in the coming years. Writing in the early third century, a commentator writes that The Reds are devoted to Mars, white people to Zephyrs, Green to Earth or spring, and The Blues to the sky and sea or autumn. During his reign 81-96 AD, the Domitian emperor created two new factions, Purples and Golds, but this disappeared as soon as he died. The Blues and Green are slowly becoming the most prestigious factions, supported by the emperor and the people. Records show that on various occasions, Blue clash against Green will break during the race. The living literature rarely calls the Reds and Whites, although their continued activity is documented in inscriptions and curse tablets.
Byzantine Era
Like many other aspects of the Roman world, racing continued in the Byzantine Empire, although the Byzantines did not hold much of the records and statistics as the Romans did. In place of the detailed inscriptions of Roman racing statistics, several short epigrams in the poem were written to celebrate some of the more famous Byzantine Charioteers. The six chariots to which these verses of praise are written are Anastasius, Julianus of Tire, Faustinus, his son, Constantine, Uranius, and Porphyrius. Although the single epigram Anastasius hardly reveals anything about him, Porphyrius is much better known, having thirty-four famous poets dedicated to him.
Constantine I (reigned 306-337) preferred the horse-drawn carriage to the gladiator battle, which he regarded as the remnants of paganism. However, the end of the gladiator game in the Empire may be more a result of the difficulties and costs that come with getting a gladiator to fight in the game, rather than the influence of Christianity in Byzantium. The Olympics finally ended by Emperor Theodosius I (r.379-395) in 393, perhaps in a movement to suppress paganism and promote Christianity, but horse-drawn race remains popular. The fact that horse-drawn carriages become associated with imperial grandeur means that the Church does not prevent it, although gradually leading Christian writers, like Tertullian, begin to attack the sport. Despite the influence of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, the venationes , the bloody beast hunting continues as a form of popular entertainment during the early Empire as part of the extra entertainment that accompanies the racecars. Finally, Emperor Leo (r.457-474) banned public entertainment on Sunday in 469, indicating that the hunt did not have imperial support, and his vein was completely forbidden by Emperor Anastasius (ruled 491-518) in 498. Anastasius Praised for this action by some sources, but their worries seem to be more for the dangers of hunting can put people in not because of objections to brutality or moral objections. There continues to be burning and mutilating humans who commit crimes or enemies of the country in the hippodrome throughout the Byzantine Empire, as well as the celebration of victory and imperial coronation.
An important race of horse-drawn carriages in the Byzantine Empire, as in the Roman Empire, as a means of strengthening social class and political power, including the Byzantine emperor's power, and often for political or religious reasons. In addition, a horse-drawn race is sometimes held to celebrate the birthday of an emperor. An explicit parallel was drawn between the winning coachmen and the victorious emperor. Factions speak to their winners by shouting "Rejoice... Your master has conquered him" while the coachman triumphed, further demonstrating the parallel between the triumph of the coachman and the emperor's victory. Indeed, the relics of Porphyrius, a famous Byzantine coachman, show him in a pose of victory acknowledged by partisans, who clearly imitate the drawings in the Emperor Theodosius bases of the oboracist. The race can also be used to symbolically make religious statements, such as when a coachman, whose mother is named Mary, falls off his chariot and returns again and the crowd describes it as "Son of Mary has fallen and risen again and triumphant."
The Hippodrome Constantinople (actually the Roman circus, not the open space where the original Greek hippodrome) connects to the emperor's palace and the Hagia Sophia Church, allowing the audience to see the emperor as they did in Rome. Citizens used their proximity to emperors in circus and theater to express public opinion, such as their dissatisfaction with Caesar's inappropriate policies. It has been argued that people are so powerful that the emperors have no choice but to give them more legal rights. However, contrary to this traditional view, it seems, based on more recent historical studies, that the Byzantine emperors treated their citizens' protests and petitions in the circus with greater and less disdainful insults than their predecessors in Rome. Justinian I (r. 527-565), for example, seems to have underestimated the Green petition and never negotiated with them at all.
There is not much evidence that a horse-drawn carriage was subjected to bribery or other forms of cheating in the Roman Empire. In the Byzantine Empire, there seems to be more cheating; The reformed Justinian I legal code prohibits drivers from condemning their opponents, but if not, there seems to be no mechanical disturbance or bribery. Wearing the color of one's team becomes an important aspect of the Byzantine dress.
Chariot racing in the Byzantine Empire also includes a Roman racing club, which continues to play a prominent role in this public exhibition. At this time, The Blues ( VÃÆ' Â © netoi ) and The Greens ( PrÃÆ'¡sinoi ) have come to overshadow two other factions of whites ( LeukoÃÆ' ) and Reds ( RoÃÆ'ºsioi ), while still maintaining an alliance in pairs, though this is now fixed as Blue and White vs. Green and Red. This circus faction was no longer their personal business during the Roman Empire. Instead, the race began to be given regularly, public funding, putting them under imperial control. Running a horse-drawn carriage race at public expense may be a cost-cutting and labor-reduction measure, making it easier to channel the right funds to a racing organization. The Emperor himself was one of four factions, and supported the interests of both the Blues and the Greens.
Adopting their favorite charioteer colors is a way fans show their loyalty to certain racers or factions. Many young men in fan clubs, or factions, adopt luxurious clothing and hairstyles, such as arm flutter, "Hunnic" hairstyle, and "Persian" facial hair. There is evidence that these youths are members of the fraction most vulnerable to violence and extreme faction competition. Some scholars have tried to argue that factional competition and violence are the result of opposing religious or political views, but it is more likely that young people only identify strongly with their factions for group solidarity. Factional violence may be involved similarly to the violence of modern football or football fans. The game itself is a common focus of factional violence, even when it's brought to the street. Though the fans who go to the Hippodrome cheer on their favorite horse carriage, their loyalty seems to be on the color rider riding more than for individual drivers. Charioteer can change faction allegiance and race for different colors during their career, but the fans do not change their loyalty to their color.
The Blues and the Greens are now more than just sports teams. They gain influence in military, political, and theological issues, although the hypothesis that Green tends toward Monophysitism and the Blues represents a debatable Orthodoxy. It is now widely believed that neither faction has a consistent religious bias or loyalty, despite the fact that they operate in an environment full of religious controversy. According to some experts, the Blue-Green rivalry contributed to the conditions underlying the rise of Islam, while factional hostilities were exploited by the Sassanid Empire in conflict with the Byzantines over the centuries before the arrival of Islam.
Blue-Green Competition often erupts into gang warfare, and street violence has increased during the reign of Justin I (r. 518-527), who took steps to restore order, when gangs killed a resident in Hagia Sophia.. The riots culminated in Nika's riots in 532 AD during the Justinian reign, which began when the two main factions united and tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the emperor.
The racecraft seems to have declined in the course of the seventh century, with the loss of the Empire suffering in the hands of the Arabs and the decline in population and economy. The Blues and Greens, deprived of any political power, are degraded into pure ceremonial roles. After the Nika riots, the factions became less violent as their interests in the imperial ceremony increased. In particular, the iconocline emperor Constantine V (reigning 741-775) urged factions for their support in his campaign against the monks. They assisted the emperor in executing his prisoners and by showing performances in which the monks and nuns were holding hands while the crowd hissed at them. Constantine V seems to have given political role factions in addition to their traditional ceremonial role. The two factions continued their activity until the imperial palace was moved to Blachernae during the 12th century.
The Hippodrome in Constantinople remained used for races, games, and public ceremonies until the sacks of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In the 12th century, Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r.1143-1180) even performed Western-style horses fitted in Hippodrome. During sack 1204, the Crusaders looted the city and, among other things, moved the copper quadriga standing above the carceres; now displayed at St. Mark in Venice. After that, the Hippodrome is ignored, though sometimes still used for glasses. A fifteenth-century Hippodrome print shows the site abandoned, some walls still standing, and spina , central reservations, robbing its splendor. Today, only obelisks and Snake Columns stand where for centuries the audiences gather. In the West, the game has ended faster; at the end of the 4th century, public entertainment in Italy ended in all but a few cities. The last recorded horse-drawn carriage race in Rome itself took place at the Circus Maximus in 549 AD.
See also
- Harness racing
Media related to Chariot racing on Wikimedia Commons
Footnote
References
Source
Primary source
Secondary sources
External links
- Chariot Races (United Nations of Rome Victrix (UNRV) History - Roman Empire)
- Circus: Roman Chariot Racing (VRoma: Virtual Community for Teaching and Learning of Classical Languages)
- The Games: Chariot Racing
- Historical Highlights: Roman Army and Chariot Racing (The Roman Army and Chariot Experience (RACE) Jerash Jordan)
- Peter Donnelly - Some Observations on Roman Chariot-Racing
- Pasko Varnica - Sport In Antiquity
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