The mustang is a free-wheeling horse from western America that was first derived from horses brought to America by Spain. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but because they are derived from a horse once pet, they are defined properly as a wild horse. The original Mustang is a Spanish Colonial horse, but many other types and types of horses contribute to modern mustang, resulting in a varied phenotype. Most contain a larger genetic mixture of livestock stock and the release of the latest breed, while some are relatively unchanged from the original Iberian stock, the most strongly represented in the most isolated populations.
In 1971, the United States Congress acknowledged that "wild wild horses and burros are a living symbol of the spirit of history and the Western pioneers, which continue to contribute to the diversity of life forms in the Nation and enrich the lives of Americans. The free mustang population must be managed and protected by Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Controversies include the division of land and resources by mustangs with livestock from the livestock industry, as well as by the methods used by the federal government to regulate wild populations. The most common method of population management used is collecting excess populations then offering them to be adopted by individual persons. Insufficient number of adopters, so many animals now live in temporary and long-term shelters with fears that animals can be sold for horse meat. An additional center of debate on the question of whether mustangs - and horses in general - are native species or invasive species introduced.
Video Mustang
Etymology and usage
Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but since all horses roam freely now in America descended from horses that have ever been domesticated; a more accurate term is a wild horse. Unlike Przewalski's horse, the only remaining wild horse, mustang is lowered from a pet horse.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the English word "mustang" comes from two basically synonymous Spanish words, mestengo (or mesteÃÆ' Â ± o ) and mostrenco. Both words refer to horses and cows that are defined as "wild, have no master." MesteÃÆ' Â ± o comes from mesta <, â € <â € <, the sheep breeder association, and one of their jobs is to deal with the lost livestock. OED states that the origins of mostrenco are not clear, "the Spanish word in turn may be derived from the Latin phrase mixta , referring to the animal with the same ownership uncertain, distributed by a breeding association called mestas in Spanish in the Middle Ages.
"Mustangers" are usually cowboys in the United States and vaqueros or mesteÃÆ' Â ± eros in Mexico who were caught, broke and riding free horses-into the market in Spain and then Mexico, and still later the American territory of what is now Northern Mexico, Texas, New Mexico and California. They captured the horses that roam the Great Plains and San Joaquin Valley of California, and then in the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century.
Maps Mustang
Characteristics and ancestors
The original Mustang is a Spanish Colonial horse, but many other types and types of horses contribute to modern mustang, resulting in a varied phenotype. Mustangs of all body types are described as front legs and have good endurance. They may be of any fur color. Throughout All Herd Management Area is managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the type of light horse riding dominates, although some horses with horse characteristics also exist, largely separated from other mustangs and confined to certain areas. Some herds show signs of introduction of Thoroughbred or other types of racehorse into the herd, a process that also caused some of the creation of the American Quarter Horse.
Modern western Mustangs have several different breeding populations today that are genetically isolated from each other and thus have distinct traits that can be traced to a particular herd. The genetic contributions to today's free roaming cattle include a variety of horse ranches that fled to or were found on public land, and estate horses used by the United States Cavalry. For example, in Idaho some Herd Management Areas (HMA) contain animals with known breeds of Thoroughbred horses and Quarter Horse apparently with wild cattle. Livestock located at two HMA in Nevada is producing Curly Horses. Others, such as certain bands in Wyoming, have characteristics consistent with horse breeds.
Many herds were analyzed for Spanish blood group polymorphisms (commonly known as "blood markers") and microsatellite DNA loci and blood marker analysis verify some to have significant Spanish descendants, the Mustang Prairie, Pryor Mountain Mustang, and several horses from Sulfur. Springs HMA. The Kiger Mustang is also said to have been found to have Spanish blood and microsatellite DNA confirm the Spanish ancestor of Pryor Mountain Mustang.
The now-defunct American Mustang Association develops breeding standards for mustangs carrying morphological features associated with early Spanish horses. This includes a body that is proportional to a clean head, smooth with wide forehead and a small muzzle. The face profile may be straight or slightly convex. Withers have medium height and shoulders should be "long and tilted." Standard assumes very short back, inner circle and clutch the muscles above the waist as desired. Croup is rounded, not too flat or prone. The tail is low. The legs should be straight and beeping. Hooves are round and solid. Dilution of the color of the dice and primitive signs are very common amongst the Spanish horses.
The horses in some other HMA show the characteristics of Spanish horses, such as dun colors and primitive marks. Other genetic herd studies, such as those performed in 2002 on bands in Challis, Idaho region, show a mix of Spanish, North American horses, horse horses, ponies and influences.
The height varies in the west, but is mostly small, generally 14 to 15 hands (56 to 60 inches, 142 to 152 cm), and no higher than 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm), even in groups with Thoroughbred design or offspring. Some domestic horse breeders consider a mustang flock from the west to be raised and low quality. However, the Mustang proponents argue that animals are only small because of their harsh living conditions and natural selection has eliminated many traits that cause weakness or inferiority.
History
Prehistoric
Family horse taxonomy "Equidae" evolved in North America 55 million years ago. In the late Pleistocene era, there are two species of families left there, caballine (stiff legs) and stiff legs, which have recently shown DNA studies representing different genera; " Equus " and " Haringtonhippus, " respectively. Haringtonhippus is extinct, and Equus has been destroyed from America at the end of the last ice age, probably because of climate change or the impact of newly arrived hunters. Thus at the beginning of the Columbus Exchange, there were no equids in America.
Restore 1493-1600
The horse first returned to America with its conquistadors, beginning with Columbus, who imported horses from Spain to the West Indies on the second voyage in 1493. Domestic horses came to the mainland with the arrival of Cortà © in 1519. In 1525, CortÃÆ' © s have imported enough horses to create a horse breeding core in Mexico.
One hypothesis states that horse populations in northern Mexico originated in the mid-1500s with the expeditions of NarvÃÆ'¡ez, de Soto or Coronado, but have been disputed. The breeding of horses in sufficient quantity to form an autonomous population thrives on what is currently the southwestern United States beginning in 1598 when Juan de OÃÆ'Â ± dined founded Santa Fe de Nuevo MÃÆ'Ã… © xico. Of the 75 horses in his original expedition, he expanded his flock to 800, and from there the horse population increased rapidly.
While Spain also brought horses to Florida in the 16th century, Choctaw and Chickasaw horses from what is now a southeastern United States are believed to originate from western mustangs moving east, and thus Spanish horses in Florida do not affect mustangs.
17th and 18th century spread
Native Americans easily integrate the use of horses into their culture. They quickly adopted horses as a major means of transportation. Horses replace dogs as packing animals and alter indigenous cultures in terms of warfare, commerce, and even diet - the ability to lower bison allows some people to leave the farm to hunt from horses.
Santa Fe became a major trading center in the 1600s. Although Spanish law prohibits Native Americans on horseback, Spaniards use indigenous people as helpers, and some are assigned to care for cattle, thus learning the skills of handling horses. OÃÆ' Â ± ates' colonists also lost many of their horses. Some people wander because the Spaniards in general do not keep them on fenced fences, and the Natives in the area catch some of these estrata. Other horses are traded by Oes settlers for food, women or other items. Initially, horses acquired by the natives were only eaten, along with cattle that were captured or stolen. But as individuals with horse-handling skills escape Spanish control, sometimes with some trained horses, local tribes begin to use horses for riding and as packing animals. In 1659, settlements were reportedly raided for horses, and in the 1660s "Apache" were exchanging human prisoners with horses. The Pueblo revolution of 1680 also produced a large number of horses that entered the hands of the Native people, the largest single inrush in history.
From Pueblo people, horses are traded to Apache, Navajo and Utes. Comanche earned a horse and gave it to Shoshone. The Eastern Shoshone and Southern Utes became traders distributing horses and horse culture from New Mexico to the northern plains. In the western part of the Continental Divide, the horse distribution moves north quite quickly along the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, passing through desert areas such as the Great Basin and western Colorado Plateau. The horse reached what today is southern Idaho in 1690. The Northern Shoshone people in the valley of the Snake River had horses in 1700. In 1730, they reached the Columbia Basin and were east of the Continental Continent in the northern Great Plains. The Blackfeet people in Alberta had horses in 1750. The Nez Perce people in particular became the main horse breeders, and developed one of America's first clear races, Appaloosa. Most other tribes do not practice selective breeding in large numbers, although they seek for the desired horse through acquisitions and quickly get rid of those with undesirable traits. In 1769, most of the Plain Indians had horses.
In this period, the Spanish Mission was also the source of estrays and stolen farms, especially where it is now Texas and California. The Spaniards took horses to California for use on their missions and farms, where permanent settlements were founded in 1769. The number of horses grew rapidly, with a population of 24,000 horses reported in 1800. In 1805, there were so many horses in California that people- people start to kill unwanted animals to reduce overpopulation. However, due to the obstacles presented by mountains and deserts, the California population did not significantly affect the number of horses elsewhere at the time. The horses in California are described as "exceptional quality."
In the upper Mississippi river valley and the Great Lakes region, France is another source of horses. Although horse trade with indigenous people is forbidden, there are people who are willing to commit illegal transactions, and since 1675, the Illinois people have horses. Animals identified as "Canada," "France" or "Norman" are in the Great Lakes region, with the 1782 census at Fort Detroit that lists more than 1000 animals. In 1770, Spanish horses were found in the area, and there was a clear zone from Ontario and Saskatchewan to St. John. Louis where Canadian horses, especially smaller varieties, are crossed with mustangs of Spanish descent. French-Canadian horses are also allowed to roam freely, and move west, especially affecting horse cattle in the northern plains and northwestern hinterlands.
Although horses were brought from Mexico to Texas in early 1542, a stable population did not exist until 1686, when the Alonso de LeÃÆ'³n expedition arrived with 700 horses. From there, the groups then raise thousands more, deliberately leaving some horses and cattle to take care of themselves in various locations, while others diverge. By 1787, these animals had doubled to the point where the gathering collected nearly 8,000 "mustangs and free-range cattle." West-central Texas, between the Rio Grande River and Palo Duro Canyon, is said to have the most concentrated wild horses population in the Americas. Throughout the west, horses spiral out of human control and form wild flocks, and by the late 1700s, the largest numbers were found in the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico.
19th century
An early 19th-century reference to mustangs by American sources came from Zebulon Pike in 1808, which records past the herd of "mustangs or wild horses." In 1821, Stephen Austin noted in his journal that he had seen about 150 mustangs.
Estimates of when a peak population should occur and the total number varies between sources. There is no comprehensive census of wild horse numbers ever carried out until the Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 and any earlier estimates, especially before the 20th century, are speculative. Some sources state that "millions" mustang once roamed in western North America. In 1959, geographer Tom L. McKnight suggested that populations peaked in the late 1700s or early 1800s, and "the best guess seemed to be between two and five million". Historian J. Frank Dobie hypothesizes that populations culminated around the end of the Mexican-American War in 1848, stating, "My own guess is that there has never been more than a million mustangs in Texas and no more than a million others scattered over the rest of the West." J. Edward de Steiguer questioned Dobie's alleged lower because it was still too high.
By 1839, the number of mustangs in Texas had been augmented by animals left behind by Mexican settlers who had been ordered to leave Nueces Strip Ulysses Grant, in his memoirs, recalling in 1846 a large flock between the Nues and the Rio Grande rivers in Texas.. "As far as the eye can reach to our right, the flock is extended.To the left, it's extended the same.No estimate the number of animals in it I do not know that they can all be corrected in the state of Rhode Island, or Delaware, at a time." it was eventually handed over to the US in 1848, these horses and others in the surrounding area were collected and trailed north and east, resulting in the near elimination of mustangs in the area in 1860.
Further west, the first known observation of horses roaming freely in the Great Basin was by John Bidwell near Humboldt Sinks in 1841. Although Fremont recorded thousands of horses in California, the only horse sign he talked about in Great Basin, which he mentioned, there are trails around the Pyramid Lake, and the native people he meets there have no horses. In 1861, another party saw seven horses roam freely near the Stillwater Mountains. For the most part, swarms of free horses roaming in the interior of Nevada were established in the late 1800s of the escaping horse settlers.
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In the early 1900s, thousands of free roaming horses were collected for use in the Spanish-American War and World War I.
In 1920, Bob Brislawn, who worked as a pack for the US government, admitted that the original mustangs disappeared, and made efforts to preserve them, eventually forming the Spanish Mustang Registry. In 1934, J. Frank Dobie stated that there were only "some wild [wild] horses in Nevada, Wyoming and other Western countries" and that "the only remaining remnant of Spanish blood left in most of them" remained. Other sources agree that at the time, only the "pockets" of mustangs retained the type of Spanish Colonial Horse that remained.
By 1930, most of the free-wheeling horses were found on the west Continental Divide, with an estimated population of between 50,000 and 150,000. They are almost completely confined to the remnants of the General Land Office (GLO) - publicly managed land and national forest ranks in 11 western states. In 1934, the Taylor Grazing Act established the US Shepherding Service to manage livestock grazing on public lands, and in 1946, the GLO was incorporated with the Pastoral Service to establish the Land Management Bureau (BLM), which, together with the Forest Service, wild horses from the land they manage.
In the 1950s, the mustang population dropped to about 25,000 horses. Violations associated with certain fishing methods, including hunting from airplanes and poisoning water holes, led to the first federal roaming-free horse protection legislation in 1959. This law, entitled "The use of aircraft or motor vehicles for hunting wild or certain burros, aquatic pollution "popularly known as the" Wild Horse Annie Act ", prohibits the use of motor vehicles to catch horses and burros freely roaming. Protection is further enhanced by the Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRHABA).
The Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 are provided to protect certain pre-determined horses and burros. The mandate mandates the BLM to oversee the protection and management of roaming free herds on managed land, and grants the US Forest Service's similar authority on National Forests. Some free horses are also managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Park Service. and the National Park Service. but for the most part they are not subject to management under the Act. A census completed along with the passage of the Act found that there were about 17,300 horses (25,300 combined population of horses Mustang today
BLM has established the Herd Management Area to determine where the horse will be maintained as a free roaming population. BLM has established "Appropriate Management Level" (AML) for each HMA, with a total of 26,000 bureaus, but the mustang population in the region in August 2017 is estimated at more than 72,000 horses. More than half of all free roaming mustangs in North America are found in Nevada (which features horses in Quarter Countries), with other significant populations in California, Oregon, Utah, Montana, and Wyoming. 45,000 other horses are in detention facilities.
Land use controversy
Controversy surrounding the role of horses in the ecosystem as well as their ranking in prioritized public land use, especially in relation to livestock. There are several points of view. Some Mustang supporters on public land affirm that, while not indigenous, mustang is an important "cultural part" of the American West, and recognizes some form of population control is required. Another point of view is that Mustangs had rehabilitated an ecologically vacant niche when horses became extinct in North America 10,000 years ago, with the varied characterization that horses are a reintroduced original species that should be legally classified as "wild" rather than "wild" "and managed as wildlife.. The "original species" argument centers on the premise that horses that went extinct 10,000 years ago evolved in North America and were genetically the same species as reintroduced, as opposed to whether horses developed ecomorphotype adapted to the ecosystem when it changed in the 10,000th Intervention year.
The Wildlife Society views Mustangs as an introduced species that states: "Since the original North American horses have become extinct, the western United States has become drier... primarily altering ecosystems and the ecological role of horses and burros playing." and that they draw the resources and attention of genuine genuine species, the 2013 Report by the National Academy of Science also challenges the notion that horses are a reintroduced original species that states: "animal and vegetation complexes have changed since the horses were eradicated from the North. America." He also stated that the distinction between indigenous and non-indigenous is not a problem, but rather "the priority that BLM provides for horses and free burros in federal lands, relative to other uses."
Mustang supporters support that the Mustangs BLM rating is higher in priority than at present, arguing that too little food is allocated to mustangs compared to cattle and sheep. Farmers and those who depend on the livestock industry support lower priorities, arguing that their livelihoods and rural economies are threatened because they depend on public land for their livestock.
The debate over what the title of Mustangs and cattle compete for foraging is diverse. Horses are adapted by evolution to inhabit ecological niche characterized by poor quality vegetation. Proponents suggest that most mustang cattle now live in dry areas where livestock can not fully utilize due to lack of water resources. Mustangs can cover a great distance to find food and water; advocates assert that horses range from 5-10 times as far as cattle to search for food, finding it in areas more difficult to reach. In addition, the horse is a "hindgut fermentor", which means that they digest nutrients by cecum than with a multi-cubicle stomach. Although this means that they extract less energy than the amount of feed given, it also means that they can digest food faster and make a difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption level. In practice, by eating more quantities, horses can get enough nutrition from food that is poorer than ruminants like cattle, and thus can survive in areas where cattle will starve.
However, while the horse BLM level by the animal unit (AUM) for feeding the same amount of feed as a cow-beef partner, 1.0, the study of horse grazing patterns suggests that horses may consume fodder at levels closer to 1.5 AUM. Modern rangeland management also recommends removing all cattle during the growing season to maximize the growth of forage. Year-round grinders by non-native ungulate will lower them, especially horses whose serrated teeth allow them to graze plants so close to the ground, hampering recovery.
Management and adoption
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is assigned by Congress to protect, manage and control wild horses and burros under the authority of the Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 to ensure that healthy flocks thrive in healthy pastures under the Law -The 1976 Land Policy and Management Policy. Difficulties arise because the size of a mustang flock can multiply rapidly, increasing up to and possibly over 20% annually, so population control presents challenges. When not managed, the population may exceed the availability of food, leading to starvation.
There are some predators in the modern era that are able to prey on healthy adult mustangs, and for the most part, predators capable of limiting the wild growth of livestock size are not found in the same habitat as most modern wild animals. Although wolves and mountain lions are two species known to prey on horses and in theory can control population growth, in practice, predation is not a viable population control mechanism. Wolves are historically rare in, and currently not inhabited, the Great Basin, where most mustang roams. While they are documented to prey on wild horses in Alberta, Canada, there is no known documentation about the predation of wolves on free-wheeling horses in the United States. Mountain lions have been documented to prey on wild horses in the US, but in limited areas and small numbers, and mostly foals.
One of the BLM's key mandates under the 1971 law and amendment is to maintain AML wild horses and burros in the highland areas of government where they are managed by the federal government. Population control into AML is achieved through arrest programs. There are strict guidelines for techniques used to collect mustangs. One method of using a tamed horse, the so-called "Judas horse", which has been trained to guide wild horses into cages or enclosures. After the mustang is herded into the area near the pen, Judas horse is released. His task then moved to the head of the herd and guided them to a restricted area.
Since 1978, captured horses have been offered to be adopted to individuals or groups who are willing and able to provide long-term, humane care after payment of adoption fees; the base cost is $ 125. The adopted Mustang is still protected under the Act, for one year after adoption, at which point the adopter can earn a degree to the horse. The horses that can not be adopted must be euthanized humanely. Instead of lulling the ponies, BLM began to hold them in "long-term holdings," an expensive alternative that could cost taxpayers up to $ 50,000 per horse during their lifetime. On December 8, 2004, a rider amending the Act Roaming Horse and Burro Wild and Free attached to the appropriation bill before the US Congress by Senator Conrad Burns. It modified the adoption program to also allow the sale of unlimited horses that are "over 10 years old", or that "offered unsuccessful for adoption at least three times." Since 1978, there is a special language in the Constitution that prohibits the BLM to sell horses to those who will take them to the slaughter, but Amendment burns remove that language. To prevent the horse is sold to the slaughter, the BLM has implemented policies that restrict the sale and requires the buyer to declare that they will not take the horse to disembelih.Pada 2017, Trump administration began pushing Congress to remove obstacles to implement both options. lull and sale with restrictions on the advantages of horses.
Nevertheless means as an Extreme Mustang Makeover, a promotional competition that gives 100-day coaches to gently and train 100 mustangs, which are then adopted by auction, to try to increase the number of horses adopted, the adoption rate is not close to home findings for excess horses. Ten thousand foals are expected to be born in the 2017 range, while only 2,500 horses are expected to be adopted. Alternatives to roundups in the control population range include fertility control, either by PZP injection or spaying mares, culling and natural regulation.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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