The New Mexico history is based on both archaeological evidence, proving the various human cultures that occupied the New Mexico region since about 9200 BC, and the written record. The earliest people had migrated from northern North America after leaving Siberia via the Bering Land Bridge. Artifacts and architecture show the ancient complex culture in this region.
The first written recording of the area was made by the Spanish Conquistador, who met with Native Americans of Pueblos as they explored the area in the 16th century. Since then, the Spanish Empire, Mexico, and the United States (since 1848) have claimed control of the territory.
The area was ruled as the New Mexico Region until 1912, when it was recognized as a state. A relatively isolated country has a mining-dependent economy. The population and its government suffer from a reputation for corruption and extreme traditionalism. New Mexico introduced the atomic century in 1945, when the first nuclear weapon was developed by the federal government at a research center founded at Los Alamos. Ethnically, the state has historically been divided among the elements of Native Americans, Hispanics, and Anglo - most recently migrants from Texas in the early years.
Video History of New Mexico
Native American settlements
Human occupation in New Mexico stretches back at least 11,000 years into the Clovis hunter-gatherer culture. They leave evidence of their campsites and stone tools. After the invention of agriculture, the land was inhabited by the Ancient Pueblo Society, which built houses of stone or adobe bricks. They experienced the Golden Age around 1000 AD, but climate change led to migration and cultural evolution. From those people came the historic Pueblo people who lived mainly along some of the great rivers. The most important rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canada, San Juan, and Gila.
MEKSIKO BARU PREHISTORIC
Maps History of New Mexico
Peoples
Pueblo people built a settled culture in the 13th century, built small towns in the Rio Grande valley and nearby pueblos. Around 700 to 900 AD, Pueblo began to leave ancient pit houses unearthed on the cliff and built rectangular rooms arranged in apartment-like structures. In 1050 AD, they have developed planned villages consisting of large-rise buildings, each with many rooms. These apartment-houses are often built in places of defense - on the edge of a large rock, on a flat top, or on a steep-sided mesh, a location that will be able to protect Anasazi from their northern enemies. The largest of these villages, Pueblo Bonito, in Chaco Canyon of New Mexico, contains about 700 rooms in five levels and may accommodate about 1000 people. There is no construction of a larger type of apartment house that will be seen on the continent until the 19th century in Chicago and New York. Then, around 1150, the Chasa Anasazi people began to unravel. Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Anasazi descendants used irrigation channels, examining dams and terraces at the edge of the hill as a technique for bringing water to a place that for centuries was a dry marginal and agricultural area. At the same time, the ceramic industry becomes more complicated, the cotton replaces the yucca fiber as the main clothing material and the basketry weaving becomes more artistic.
The Spaniards experienced the Pueblo civilization and elements of Athabaskans in the 16th century. Cabeza de Vaca in 1535, one of four survivors of the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition of 1527, told of hearing the Indians talking about the extraordinary cities somewhere in New Mexico. Fray Marcos de Niza enthusiastically identified this as Seven Caba's extraordinarily rich city, the seven mythical city of gold. Francisco VÃÆ'¡squez de Coronado led a massive expedition to find these cities in 1540-1542. Coronado camped near a pueblo dug today preserved as the Coronado National Memorial in 1541. The Spanish bad treatment of the Pueblo and Athabaskan people that began with their explorations in the upper Rio Grande valley led to a hostility that hindered the Spanish conquest of New Mexico for centuries -century.
The three largest pueblos in New Mexico are ZuÃÆ' Â ± i, Santo Domingo, and Laguna. There are three different languages ​​spoken by pueblo.
Athabaskans-Apachean
The Navajo and Apache people are members of the large Athabaskan language family, which includes people in Alaska and Canada, and along the Pacific Coast.
The historic people faced by Europeans do not form unified tribes in the modern sense, because they are highly decentralized, operating in bands of a size adapted to their semi-nomadic culture. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, European explorers, missionaries, merchants, and settlers referred to various Apache and Navajo groups by various names, often associated with language or geography differences. People identified as DinÃÆ' Â © , meaning "people". Navajo and Apache formed the largest non-Pueblo Indian group in the Southwest. These two tribes lead the nomadic lifestyle and speak the same language.
Some experts estimate that the Apache semi nomadic was active in New Mexico in the 13th century. Spanish records indicate that they trade with Pueblo. Various bands or tribes participated in the Southwest Revolution against Spain in the 1680s. At the beginning of the 18th century, Spain has built a series of over 25 forts to protect themselves and conquer populations from traditional Athabaskan invaders.
The Navajo nation, with more than 300,000 federal tribes recognized in the United States, is concentrated in northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. Mescalero Apache lives east of the Rio Grande. Apache Jicarilla lives west of the Rio Grande. Apache Chiricahua lived in southwest New Mexico until the late 19th century.
Colonial Period
Spanish Spanish exploration and colonization
Francisco VÃÆ'¡squez de Coronado gathered a massive expedition in Compostela, Mexico in 1540-1542 to explore and discover the legendary Seven Golden Cities of Cibola, as described by Cabeza de Vaca, who had just arrived from his eight-year ordeal for survival. He traveled overland from Florida to Mexico. Cabeza de Vaca and three friends were the only survivors of the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition June 17, 1527 to Florida, missing 80 horses and several hundred explorers. The four survivors have spent eight difficult years reaching Sinaloa, Mexico on the Pacific coast and have visited many Indian tribes.
Coronado and his supporters drowned wealth in this ill-fated company. They took 1300 horses and donkeys for riding and flapping, and hundreds of sheep and cattle heads as portable food supplies. The Coronado people found some adobe pueblos (towns) in 1541 but there were no gold-rich cities. The wider expedition did not find any amazing cities anywhere in the Southwest or the Great Plains. Coronado's lackluster and now poor man and his men began their journey back to Mexico, leaving New Mexico behind. it is possible that some Coronado horses fled, to be caught and adopted for use by Indian Plains. For the next two centuries, they made horses at the center of their nomadic culture. Only two Coronado horses are horses.
Over 50 years after Coronado, Juan de OÃÆ'Â ± meal came to the north of Mexico with 500 Spanish settlers and soldiers and 7,000 heads of cattle, setting up the first Spanish settlement in New Mexico on July 11, 1598. The governor named the settlement San Juan de los Caballeros . This means "Saint John of the Knights". San Juan is in a small valley. Nearby the Chama River flows into the Rio Grande. OÃÆ' Â ± dining spearheaded El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, "The Royal Road of the Interior Land," a path along the 1,100 km of the rest of New Spain to its remote colony. OÃÆ' Â ± was appointed as the first governor of the new province of Santa Fe de Nuevo MÃÆ'Ã… © xico. Although he intended to achieve total indigenous conquest, OÃÆ'Â ± eating was recorded in 1599 that Pueblo "lived very much in [Spain], in a house with two and three terraces."
"The Native Americans at Acoma rebelled against this Spanish encroachment but faced enormous repression.In the battle with Acomas, OÃÆ'Â mem ate the loss of 11 soldiers and two servants, killing hundreds of Indians, and punishing every man over 25 years with a left leg amputation The Franciscans find the pueblo increasingly unwilling to approve baptism by newcomers who continue to demand food, clothing and labor.Acoma is also known as the oldest inhabited city in the United States. "
The capital of OÃÆ'Â ± at San Juan proved to be vulnerable to the "Apache" attack (probably Navajo). Governor Pedro de Peralta moved the capital and established the Santa Fe settlement in 1610 at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Santa Fe is the oldest capital city in the United States. Peralta built the Governor's Palace in 1610. Although the colony failed to flourish, some Catholic missions managed to survive. Spanish settlers arrived at the Albuquerque site in the mid-17th century. Missionaries seek to convert natives to Christianity, but have little success.
Contemporary scholars believe that the goal of the Spanish government of New Mexico (and all other northern lands) is the full exploitation of the inhabitants and indigenous resources. As written by Frank McNitt,
"The Governors are greedy and greedy whose sole interest is to squeeze as much of the private property of the province as permitted by their terms.They exploit Indian laborers to transport, sell Indian slaves in New Spain, and sell Indian products... and other items produced by Indian slave labor. "
The exploitative nature of the Spanish government resulted in them conducting continuous raids and retaliation against nomadic Indian tribes on the border, especially Apache, Navajo, and Comanche.
Franciscan missionaries accompany OÃÆ' Â ± meals to New Mexico; thereafter there is an ongoing struggle between secular authority and religion. The colonists and Franciscans depend on Indian labor, mostly Pueblo, and compete with each other to control the declining Indian population. They suffered heavy deaths from contagious European diseases, where they were not immune, and the exploitation that disrupted their society. The struggle between the Franciscans and the civilian government emerged in the late 1650s. Governor Bernardo Lopez de Mendizabal and his subordinate Nicolas de Aguilar forbade the Franciscans to punish the Indians or to hire them unpaid. They were given Pueblo permission to practice their traditional dances and religious ceremonies. After the Franciscans protested, Lopez and Aguilar were arrested, handed over to the Inquisition, and tried in Mexico City. After that, the Franciscans became the supreme rulers of the province. Pueblo's discontent with clerical power was the main cause of the Pueblo uprising.
The Spaniards in New Mexico could never gain dominance over the Indians, who lived among and surrounded them. The isolated colonies of New Mexico are characterized by "a complex network of ethnic tensions, friendship, conflict, and kinship" among Indian groups and Spanish colonialists. Due to New Mexico's weakness, "remote-ranked and file-ranking setters must learn to live side by side with Indian neighbors without being able to keep their subordinates." Indian Pueblo was the first group to challenge significant Spanish powers. Then the nomadic Indians, especially the Comanche, launched an attack that weakened the Spaniards.
Pueblo Revolt of 1680
Many Puebloans harbor animosity towards Spain, because of their oppression of the Indians and the prohibition of their traditional religious practices. The economy of the pueblo is disturbed, because people are forced to work on the encomiendas of the colonists. Spain introduced a new agricultural tool that Pueblo adopted and provided some security measures against the Navajo and Apache invading parties. The Pueblo lived in relative peace with Spain from the founding of the New Mexico Northern colony in 1598.
In the 1670s, drought swept through the region, causing famine among Pueblo, and attracted increasing assaults from neighboring nomadic tribes trying to get food supplies. The Spanish army was unable to maintain adequate settlements. At the same time, the diseases introduced by Europe caused a high death among indigenous people, which destroyed their communities. Dissatisfied with the protective power of the Spanish crown and the god of the Catholic Church, Pueblo returned to their old god. This provoked a wave of oppression on the part of Franciscan missionaries. After his arrest over alleged witchcraft and subsequent deliveries, PopÃÆ'Â © (or Po-pay) planned and arranged the Pueblo Revolution.
After being released, PopÃÆ'Â Â © moved to Taos and planned a Pueblo war against the Spaniards. He sends sprinters to all Pueblos carrying knotted ropes, knots that indicate the number of days left until the day specified for them to rise together against the Spaniards. Hearing that the Spaniards had been aware of these plans, PopÃÆ'Â Â © ordered the attacks to advance to 13 August. Spain was driven from all parts of southern New Mexico. They set up a temporary capital in El Paso while making preparations to reclaim the rest of the province.
The retreat of the Spaniards left New Mexico dominated by the Indians. Popà ©  © ordered the Indians, under the threat of capital punishment, burning or destroying crosses and other Catholic religious images, as well as remnants of other Spanish cultures. He also wanted to destroy Spanish livestock and fruit trees. Kivas (room for religious rituals) reopened, and PopÃÆ' memerintahkan © ordered all Indians to bathe with soap made of yucca root. He banned the planting of wheat crops and Spanish barley. Popà ©  © ordered the Indians married by the rite of the Catholic Church to fire their wives, and to take others under their traditional ways. He took over the control of the Governor's Palace as the ruler of Pueblo, and collected tribute from each Pueblo until his death in 1688.
After their success, different Pueblo tribes, separated by hundreds of miles and six different languages, quarreled who would occupy Santa Fe and seize control of the area. This power struggle, combined with attacks from nomadic tribes and seven-year drought, weakens the power of Pueblo. In July 1692, Diego de Vargas led the Spanish troops besieging Santa Fe, where he asked the Indians to surrender, promising forgiveness if they would swear allegiance to the King of Spain and return to the Christian faith. Indian leaders gather in Santa Fe, meet De Vargas, and agree on peace.
While developing Santa Fe as a trading center, the settlers who re-established Albuquerque in 1706, named the young Spanish king, the Duke of Albuquerque. Prior to its establishment, Albuquerque consists of several haciendas and communities along the lower Rio Grande. The settlers built Iglesia de San Felipe Neri (1706). The development of farms and some farms in the 18th century is the basis for the culture of many Hispanic developing countries.
While Pueblo achieved a short period of independence from the Spaniards, they gained a measure of freedom from Spanish efforts in the future to force their culture and religion to follow conquest. Spain issued a large land grant for each Pueblo, and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Indians and debate their legal cases in Spanish courts.
Spanish relations with nomad Indians
From the date of the founding of New Mexico, Indian Pueblo and Spanish settlers were seized by a hostile relationship with Navajo nomads and semi-nomadic, Apache, Ute, and Comanche Indians. These tribes raided the more sedentary people for livestock, food supplies and shops, and prisoners for ransom or used as slaves.
The people of southwest India developed a culture of horses, raiding livestock and Spanish missions for their horses, and eventually breeding and rearing their own livestock. Indian horse culture quickly spread throughout western America. Navajo and Apache attacks for horses in Spanish and Pueblo settlements began in the 1650s or earlier. Through the Pueblo Revolution of 1680, the Indians acquired many horses. In the 1750s, the horse culture of Indian Plains had been formed from Texas to Alberta, Canada. Navajo, in addition to being among the first Indian tribes in the United States, has a uniqueness in developing a pastoral culture based on sheep stolen from Spain. At the beginning of the 18th century, Navajo households usually had sheep flocks.
Comancheria
After the Pueblo uprising, Comanche became the most serious threat to the Spanish settlers. Scholar HÃÆ'¤mÃÆ'¤lÃÆ'¤inen (2008) argues that from the 1750s to the 1850s, the Comanche was the dominant group in the Southwest, and they ruled a domain known as the Comancheria. HÃÆ'¤mÃÆ'¤lÃÆ'¤inen call it an empire. Faced with Spanish, Mexican, French and American posts in their suburbs in New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana and Mexico, they work to improve their own security, prosperity and power. Comanche used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from America, Mexico, and India through cunning, tribute, and kidnapping. The Comanche kingdom is primarily an economic construction, rooted in a vast commercial network that facilitates long-distance trade. Dealing with Indian subordinates, Comanche spread their language and culture throughout the region. In terms of government, Comanche created a decentralized political system, based on assault, hunting, and pastoral economics. They create a hierarchical social organization in which youth can advance through success in war.
In 1706, the colonists in New Mexico first recorded Comanche; in 1719 they invaded the colonies and other Indian tribes. Other tribes mainly raided the looting, but Comanche introduced a new level of violence to the conflict. They prey on other Indians. The Comanche is a pure traveler, well fitted by the 1730s. They are more elusive and moving than the semi-nomadic Apache and Navajo, who depend on agriculture or shepherd for part of their livelihood. Comanche both invaded and traded with New Mexicans. They are particularly prominent at the annual Taos trade fair, where they peacefully trade skins, flesh and prisoners, often before or after robbing other settlements. They jeopardized the survival of New Mexico's colonial life, disarmed the horse settlements, forced the abandonment of many settlements, and in 1778 killed 127 Spanish and Indian Pueblo settlers. Judicial expeditions by Spain and their Indian allies against Comanche are usually ineffective. In 1779 Spanish troops and an Indian Pueblo of 560 people, led by Juan Bautista de Anza, surprised a Comanche village near Pueblo, Colorado and killed Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), the most prominent of the Comanche war leaders. Comanche was later sued for peace with New Mexico, joining New Mexicans on an expedition against their common enemy, Apache, and turned their attention to robbing Spanish settlements in Texas and northern Mexico. The New Mexicans on their side were careful not to be hostile to the Comanche and to reward them. Peace between New Mexico and Comanche survived until the United States conquered the province in 1846 during the Mexican-American War.
Peace with Comanche encourages the growth of the New Mexico population; the settlement expanded eastward to the Great Plains. These new settlement residents are predominantly genizaros , Indians and descendants of Indians redeemed from Comanche. Navajo and Apache attacks continue to affect the region. Navajo was defeated in 1864 by Kit Carson, but Apache leader Geronimo did not surrender until 1886. Ute previously allied with the New Mexicans to protect each other against the Comanche.
The Comanche kingdom collapsed after their village was repeatedly destroyed by epidemics of smallpox and cholera, especially in 1849; their population declined from about 20,000 in the 18th century to 1,500 in 1875, when they surrendered to the US Government. Comanche no longer has the energy to deal with the US Army and the wave of white settlers who penetrated their territory in the decades after the Mexican-American War ended in 1848.
AS. exploration
After Lewis and Clark many men began to explore and trap in the western part of the United States. Sent in 1806, command Lt. Zebulon Pike is to find the Arkansas and Red river upstream. He will explore the Southwest part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1807, when Pike and his men crossed into the San Luis Valley in northern New Mexico they were arrested and taken to Santa Fe, and then sent south to Chihuahua where they appeared before Commander General Salcedo. After four months of diplomatic negotiations, Pike and his men were returned to the United States, under protest, across the Red River in Natchitoches.
Mexican Region
Mexican Revolution and Independence
The decade leading to independence was a painful period in Mexican history. In 1810, Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo instigated a war for independence in central Mexico, a struggle that quickly took on the character of class warfare. The following year, military captain Las Casas instigated a coup in the Imperial regime. Sympathizing with the poor underclass, Las Casas opens a dialogue with the revolutionaries. This caused the Spanish elite to incite his own counter coup and execute Las Casas. For years after that the regime failed to regain coherence and mandate to govern. This ideological struggle affects the periphery of New Mexico far less than they do at the national center, but it produces a sense of alienation with central authority.
Furthermore, in 1818 a long-standing peace between settled communities in New Mexico and neighboring nomadic tribes was damaged. Just a month after swearing allegiance to the new Mexican government in 1821, the governor of Melgares led an attack on Navajo state. Secluded from other settled areas and surrounded by nomadic Indian tribes, the new Mexicans tend to communal feelings and security placements above all other issues.
For these reasons, it is surprising that the transition from Spanish to Mexican government took place peacefully as it did. In New Mexico this event is passed with a little show of enthusiasm or alignment. The festival is largely an uninspired affair and is only held on the orders of the revolutionary government which declares that they should be held, "in all its forms and with the splendor that the oath of allegiance to the previous kings has been read". But there is no renewed civil war and the interim administration is given enormous support from most societies.
Trading along the Santa Fe Trail opened after Mexico's independence. With this trade came a new stream of citizens from the United States. Prior to independence, the estranjeros (foreigners) were not allowed to participate in receiving land grants, but now, together with open trade, some will become participating owners of merceds ). Federalist Stages
In 1824 a new constitution was drafted, which established Mexico as a federalist republic. A general-minded liberal atmosphere that has permeated Mexico since independence led to the generosity of local autonomy and limited central power. New Mexico is particularly able to take advantage and carve out significant privileges in this new system. Classified as an area contrary to the state, it has reduced representation in national government but broad local autonomy. Due to the old age of New Mexico society and its relative sophistication, it is uniquely placed to take advantage of its position as a border but still affect influence across the country.
One characteristic of the Mexican period in New Mexico's history is an attempt to instill nationalist sentiments. This is a tremendous challenge given the nature of identity in Mexico during the Spanish empire. Under the official order of the empire, subjects were classified on the basis of ethnicity, class and position in society. Between these legal distinctions keeps the group separate and the movement between groups is organized. Ethnic Europeans of course made the upper crust of this system with Peninsulars, those born in Spain itself, consisting of the true elite while Mexicans born in Mexico, the creole, were just below them. At the bottom there are masses of Indians and Mestizos, who have little legal rights and protection against their superiors' abuse.
In contrast, the new 'Mexican' elite seeks to create a common identity among all classes and ethnicities. Embracing a wide range of people and cultures, ranging from nomadic Indians to high-end people in Mexico City, is very ambitious and meets with diverse success. In New Mexico, there are already highly structured and different societies at independence, unique along the Mexican border. At the top is an ethnic European who later joined the large Hispanic community. The more Indian blood you have, the lower on the social scale you tend to be until the bottom is made up of a resident Pueblo community and nomadic Indians outside the government.
Nationalists seek to build equality, if only legally, between these different groups. Local Autonomy New Mexicans have been established to inhibit these efforts and during the period of Mexico the elite continue to defend their privileges. Nevertheless, New Mexico residents were able to adapt their old identities as Spanish subjects to Mexican citizens. Instead of a purely modern liberal identity, this customized Spanish feudalism became a geographical area. The proof of success in this nationalism can be seen in the Pueblo myth of Montezuma. It states that the native land of Aztec is located in New Mexico, and the original king of the Aztecs is Pueblo. It created a symbolic, and fully artificial, connection between the center of Mexico and the remote border community.
Central and collapsed stage
The federal and liberal atmosphere that includes Mexican thought since independence collapsed in the mid-1830s. Across the political spectrum there is a perception that the previous system has failed and needs to be re-adjusted. This led to the dissolution of the 1824 constitution and the new compilation based on the centralist lines. As Mexico got farther and farther toward despotism, national projects began to fail and the nation fell into crisis.
Along the border, formerly autonomous people reacted aggressively to the new central government. The most independent province, Texas, declared independence in 1835, which sparked a sequence of events that directly led to the collapse of Mexico. The 1837 rebellion in New Mexico itself ousted and executed the central designated governor and demanded an increase in regional authority. This rebellion was defeated in New Mexico society itself by Manuel Armijo. This was motivated not by nationalist sentiment but by class antagonism in New Mexican society. When the central government was rebuilt, it was done on the lines of Armijo (he became governor) and he ruled this province with greater autonomy than any other time during the Mexican period.
As the situation in Mexico is getting farther and more confusing, New Mexico is getting closer economically to the United States. This is symbolized by the growth of traffic and the advantages of the Santa Fe Line as a means of communication and commerce. In the mid-1830s, New Mexico began functioning as a trading hub between the United States, central Mexico and Mexico Mexico. Merchants walking on the Great Plains will stop in Santa Fe, where they will meet their counterparts from Los Angeles and Mexico City. The result was that when Mexico was falling into turmoil, New Mexico grew economically and shifted into the orbit of the United States.
In 1845, the governor of Armijo was cut off when the Santa Anna regime succeeded him as governor with outsider politician Mariano Martinez. In the growing threat of war with the United States, the national center seeks to bring the borders under tight control as there that war will be fought for. Most New Mexicans do not trust the central government now, but soon turned into a rage when, a year in his reign, Martinez sparked an unnecessary war with nearby Indian tribes due to incompetence and naïdevet. To prevent the revolution, Martinez was quickly moved and Armijo was restored, but the trust still enjoyed by the central government was completely destroyed.
Rumors of the following year arrived in New Mexico that the Mexican government planned to sell the territory to the United States. There is so little confidence in the central government at this point that instead of investigating these (totally wrong) rumors a prominent member of New Mexico society is setting the threat of secession to the government. It states that if such action is taken then New Mexico will declare independence as El Republica Mexicana del Norte. It was not until attacking American troops reached New Mexico in August 1846 that they studied war with the United States.
Texas
The Republic of Texas broke away from Mexico in 1836 and claimed but never controlled territories as far south and west as the Rio Grande. While most of the northwestern region is Comancheria, it will include Santa Fe and divide New Mexico. The only attempt to materialize that claim was the Santa Fe Expedition of Texas President Mirabeau Lamar, who failed spectacularly. The wagon train, provided for travel about half the actual distance between Austin and Santa Fe, followed the wrong river, traced back, and arrived in New Mexico to find a restored and hostile Mexican governor. Giving up peacefully on a promise to be allowed back to the way they came, the Texans found themselves tied at gunpoint and their execution punished by garrison voting. With one voice, they spared and marched south to Chihuahua and then Mexico City.
United States Control
Mexican-American War
In 1846, during the Mexican-American War, American General Stephen W. Kearny descended on the Santa Fe Trail and entered Santa Fe without a fight to form a joint civil and military government. Kearny's invasion force consisted of 300 cavalry troops from First Dragoons, about 1600 Missouri volunteers in the First and Second Regiments of Fort Leavenworth, Missouri Mounted Cavalry, and 500 Mormon Battalions. Kearny appointed Charles Bent, a Santa Fe trail trader living in Taos, as a civilian governor. He then divides his army into four orders: one, under Colonel Sterling Price, appoint a military governor, to occupy and maintain order in New Mexico with about 800 people; the second group under Colonel Alexander William Doniphan, with over 800 people ordered to capture El Paso, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico and then join the General Wool; the third, of some 300 dragons mounted on mules, Kearny led under his command to California. The Mormon Battalion, mostly walking under Lieutenant Colonel Philip St. George Cooke, directed to follow Kearny by train to build a new southern route to California.
When Kearny meets Kit Carson, travels to the East and carries a message that California is subdued, he sends nearly 200 of his dragoons back to New Mexico. In California, about 400 members of the California Battalion under the leadership of John C. Fremont and 400 others under Commodore Robert Stockton of the US Navy and Marines have controlled about 7,000 Californios from San Diego to Sacramento. The New Mexico region, which then includes the territory of Arizona today, is under uncontested American control, but the exact boundary with Texas is uncertain. Texas originally claimed all the land in the North Rio Grande; but then agree with the boundaries now.
Kearny protects citizens in the new US territory under a form of martial law called Kearny Code; basically Kearny and a US Army pledge that the US will respect existing religious and legal claims, and keep law and order. Kearny Code became one of New Mexico's legal code bases during its territorial period, which is one of the longest in the history of the United States. Many conditions remain unchanged today.
Kearny's arrival in New Mexico was essentially without conflict; The governor surrendered without battle, and the Mexican authorities took the money they could find and retreated south to Mexico. However, the US occupation is hated by New Mexicans. The temporary governor Charles Bent, a longtime resident of New Mexico, appealed to US army officers to "respect the rights of the population" and predicted "serious consequences" if actions were not taken to prevent violations. His warning was prophetic, as New Mexico rebels and Pueblo Indians soon began the Taos Uprising.
On January 19, 1847, the rebels attacked and killed the Governor, Bent, and about ten other American officials. The wives of Bent and Kit Carson, however, managed to escape. Reacting quickly, the US detachment under Colonel Sterling Price lined up in Taos and was attacked. The rebels retreated to a thick-walled adobe church. US troops broke through the wall and directed the cannon fire concentrated into the church. About 150 of the rebels were killed, and 400 arrested, after close combat. During one trial, six rebels were dragged and tried, five of whom were convicted of murder and a betrayal. The six were hanged in April, 1847. A young traveler and later author, Lewis Hector Garrard, wrote the only eyewitness account of this trial and was hanged. He criticized, "This indeed seems to be a big assumption for Americans to conquer a country, and then confronts a rebellious population because of treason... Insults, indeed! What does the poor devil know about his new loyalty? But so it is, and, it was thought to be wise to speed up the execution... I left the room, hurt.Justice! Out on word, when distorted meaning is a warrant to kill those who defend to their last country and their home. "Additional execution followed up to a total of at least 28.
Price fought three engagements with the rebels, including many Indian Pueblo, who wanted to push America out of the region. In mid-February, he managed to rebel. President James K. Polk promoted Price to the rank of Brevet Brigadier General for his devotion. The total fatalities amounted to more than 300 native New Mexico rebels and about 30 Anglos, because non-Latin white skin is commonly referred to in the southwest to this day.
interim administration
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, Mexico surrendered most of its largely unresolved holdings, now known as Southwest America and California, to the United States in exchange for ending hostilities, and the evacuation of Mexican Americans and many other areas under its control. Under this agreement, Mexico recognizes Texas as part of the United States. Mexico also received $ 15 million in cash, plus a slightly more than $ 3 million assumption in Mexico's tremendous debt.
New Mexico, the new name for the region between Texas and California, became the US territory. The Senate attacks Article X of the Guadalupe Hidalgo Agreement, which says that the vast land grants in New Mexico (almost always prizes by local authorities to their friends) will all be recognized. The agreement promises to protect the right of ownership of land heirs. The decision to drop Article X eventually leads to a court case in which the US removes millions of hectares of land, timber, and water from a land grant issued by Mexico and puts them back in the public domain. But Correia points out that the land involved is usually never occupied or controlled by people who have a grant; most of them in Indian-controlled areas.
Residents can choose whether they remain and accept US citizenship or wipe out to Mexico and retain (or gain) Mexican citizenship. All but 1000 or so settlers - mostly Mexican government officials - choose American citizenship, which includes full voting rights. Because at that time only white people could vote in many states, the Mexicans were considered white under the law.
In the later decades, when discrimination by white people increased in various fields due to the growing number of Mexican immigrants, some countries tried to classify Hispanics as blacks or colored, and therefore exclude them from voting due to barriers to registration voters. These practices were challenged in the mid-20th century and resolved in cases that reached the US Supreme Court.
American Region
The 1850 Congressional Compromise ceased bids for state status under the proposed anti-laundering constitution. Texas moved east of New Mexico to the federal government, resolving a long boundary dispute. Under the compromise, the American government established the New Mexico Territory on September 9, 1850. The territory, which covers all of Arizona, New Mexico and parts of Colorado, formally established its capital in Santa Fe in 1851. The New York US territorial Census 1850 discovered 61,547 people living in the entire New Mexico region. The people of New Mexico will decide whether to allow slavery under the proposed constitution in the state, but the status of slavery during the territorial period provoked the debate. Giving state status depends on Congress sharply divided into slavery. Some (including Stephen A. Douglas) argue that the territory can not limit slavery, as under the earlier Missouri Compromise, while others (including Abraham Lincoln) insist that older Mexican legal traditions, prohibiting slavery, take precedence. Regardless of its official status, black slavery is rarely seen in New Mexico although slavery in India is commonplace. State status was finally given to New Mexico on January 6, 1912.
Navajo and Apache attacks and looting caused Kit Carson to abandon his intention to retire to a sheep farm near Taos after the Mexican-American War. Carson accepted the appointment of 1853 as a United States agent with headquarters in Taos, and struggled against the Indians with significant success.
The United States acquired southern southwestern boot heels and southern Arizona under the Gila river in most of the Gadsden Desert Purchase of 1853. This purchase was desirable when it was discovered that a much easier route to the proposed transcontinental railway lies just south of the Gila river. This area has not been explored or mapped when the Guadalupe Hidalgo Agreement was negotiated in 1848. The ever-present Santa Anna reigned again in 1853 and needed money from Gadsden's Purchase to fill his coffers and pay the Mexican Army for that year. The South Pacific built a second transcontinental railway even though the land was purchased in 1881.
In the House of Representatives of the United States, the Thirty-Three Committee on January 14, 1861 reported that they had reached a majority agreement on constitutional amendments to protect slavery where it exists and the direct recognition of the New Mexico Territory as a slave state. This last proposal will result in a de facto extension of the Missouri Compromise line for all the territories under the line. After the Peace Conference in 1861, the bill for the state of New Mexico was filed in a 115 to 71 vote with opposition coming from the South and the Republic.
Media
The first newspaper in New Mexico was El Crepusculo de la Libertad (â € Å"Dawn of Libertyâ €), a Spanish letter written in 1834 in Taos. The Santa Fe Republican , founded in 1847, was the first English-language newspaper. In 2000, the country had 18 daily newspapers, 13 Sunday newspapers, and 25 weekly newspapers. Today's daily documents include Albuquerque Journal , Santa Fe New Mexico (founded in 1849), Las Cruces Sun-News , Roswell Record , Farmington Daily Times , and Deming Headlight . The most widely aired radio station since its inception in 1922 was KKOB (AM) in Albuquerque. With 50,000 watts of transmitter power on clear channels, it reaches audiences in most of New Mexico and parts of neighboring countries. There are at least five television stations, based in Albuquerque, representing ABC, NBC, CBS, PBS, and Fox.
Civil War
During the American Civil War, the Confederate troops of Texas ordered by General Henry Sibley briefly occupied southern New Mexico in July 1861, pushing the Rio Grande Valley as far as Santa Fe in February 1862. Beaten in the Battle of the Glorieta Pass, they were forced to retreat south. Union troops from California under General James Carleton recaptured the territory in August 1862. When Union forces were withdrawn to fight elsewhere, Kit Carson helped organize and order the First New Mexico Volunteers to engage in a campaign against Apache, Navajo and Comanche in New Mexico and Texas and participated in the Battle of Valverde against the Confederacy. The Confederate Forces retreated after the Glorieta Pass Battle of the Union Union, the Colorado Volunteers (The Pikes Peakers), and the New Mexican Volunteers defeated them. The Arizona region was divided into separate regions in 1863.
Indian
Centuries of continuous conflict with Apache and Navajo continues to plague New Mexico. In 1864, the US Army trapped and captured the main Navajo forces, forcing them to make small reservations in eastern New Mexico in what is called the Long Walk of the Navajo, also called Long Walk to Bosque Redondo. This ends their cattle raids on New Mexico farms, farms, and Indian pueblos. After several years of severe difficulty, in which many Navajos died, they were allowed in 1868 to return to much of their land. Sporadic Apache's small-scale raid continued until Apache Geronimo's chief was finally arrested and imprisoned in 1886.
After the Civil War, the Army formed a chain of fortifications to protect the people and the trade caravans. Most of the tribes were transferred to reservations near the castle, where they were fed and supplied by the federal government. Often inventory and annuity are late, or spoiled food.
Las Gorras Blancas
After the Mexican-American War, Anglo-Americans began to migrate in large numbers to all newly acquired territories. Anglo began to take the land of Native Americans and Nuevomexicanos in different ways, especially by squatting. Squatters often then sell this land to landed speculators for big profits, especially after the passage of the 1862 Act fostered developments in the West. Nuevomexicanos demanded the return of their land, but the government did not respond well. For example, the General Claims Surveyor in New Mexico sometimes takes up to fifty years to process claims, while the lands are confiscated by newcomers. The first General Surveyor, William Pelham, had two translators who helped him: David Miller and David Whiting. But these two men did not seem to cut into the fifty years it took to translate.
While the Santa Fe, Atchison, and Topeka trains were built in the 1890s, speculators known as the Santa Fe Ring, set up a scheme to expel natives from their land. In response, Nuevomexicanos gather to reclaim land taken by Anglos. Hoping to frighten the new immigrants, they end up using intimidation and raids to achieve their goals. They seek to develop class-based awareness among local communities through the tactics of daily resistance to the economic and social order facing the general public about land grants. They call themselves Las Gorras Blancas, a name that refers to a widely worn white headscarf.
The Gilded Age
In 1851 the Vatican appointed Jean-Baptiste Lamy (1814-1888), a French cleric, as bishop of Sante Fe diocese. There were only nine priests at first; Lamy brings more. In 1875 it was upgraded to the status of the archdiocese, with oversight of Catholic affairs in New Mexico and Arizona. Lamy has St. Francis built in the French style; work was done between 1869 and 1886.
To provide fortifications and reservations with food, the federal government contracted thousands of heads of livestock, and Texas farmers began to enter New Mexico with their livestock. The farmer Charles Goodnight opened the first livestock trail through New Mexico in 1866, stretching from the Pecos River to the north to Colorado and Wyoming. More than that, more than 250,000 head of cattle into the market. John Chisum also took his cattle to Peco. As an employer of the despair of Billy the Kid, he was prominent in the Lincoln County War of 1878-1880. This is one of many struggles between cattle herders and territorial officials, among rival cattle rivals, and between sheep breeders and cattle ranchers during this period. The Butterfield Line, which is the longest track on the ranch, has the first major stops in New Mexico at Fort Fillmore. It began operating in 1858 and was replaced by rail operations in 1881.
The Santa Fe Railroad reached New Mexico in 1878, with the first locomotive crossing the Raton Pass in December. It reached Lamy, New Mexico, 16 miles (26Ã, km) from Santa Fe in 1879 and Santa Fe itself in 1880, and Deming in 1881, thus replacing the multi-story Santa Fe Trail as a way to send cattle to the market. The new town of Albuquerque, moored in 1880 when the Santa Fe Railway stretched to the west, quickly enveloped the old city. The South Pacific rivals settled between the Rio Grande Valley and the Arizona border in 1881.
From 1880 to 1910, the region grew rapidly. With the arrival of railroads, many residents moved to New Mexico. In 1886, the New Mexico Education Association of school teachers was organized; in 1889 a small state college was established in Albuquerque, Las Cruces, and Socorro; and in 1891 the first effective general school law was passed. An irrigation project in the Pecos River valley in 1889 marked the first of many projects to irrigate agriculture in a dry country. The discovery of artesian water at Roswell in 1890 gave agricultural and mining encouragement. The strength of the livestock barons fades because much of the land is fenced at the expense of open reach. Cattle ranchers and sheep breeders also learn to tolerate each other, and both the cattle and sheep industry expand. Mining is becoming increasingly important, especially gold and silver. Coal mining was developed during the 1890s, primarily to supply railroads, and oil was discovered in Eddy County in 1909. The population of New Mexico reached 195,000 in 1910.
Conflicts over land claims caused fierce squabbling among the native Spanish, cattle ranchers, and new homeowners. Despite undermining excessive grazing, livestock survives as a mainstay of New Mexico's economy.
State Status
On January 6, 1912, after years of debate about whether the New Mexico population is fully assimilated into American culture, or too drowned in corruption, President William Howard Taft twisted weapons in Congress and approved the acceptance of New Mexico as the 47th state of Unity. The recognition of Arizona's neighbor on February 14, 1912 completed 48 adjacent countries. Thousands of Mexicans fled north during a bloody civil war that erupted in Mexico in 1911. In 1916, Mexican military leader Pancho Villa led an invasion across the border into Columbus, New Mexico, where they burned several homes and killing several Americans.
New Mexico accounted for some 17,000 people to armed services during World War I. Thousands more from the country fought for the Allies during World War II.
Artist and author
When the main line of trains passes through Santa Fe, the city loses business and population. In the 20th century, American and British artists and writers, and retirees were attracted to the region's cultural treasures, scenic beauty, and warm, dry climates. Local leaders take the opportunity to promote the heritage of the city making it a tourist attraction. The city-sponsored architectural bold restoration project and building new buildings in accordance with traditional techniques and styles, thus creating "Santa Fe style." Edgar L. Hewett, founder and first director of the School of American Research and Museum of New Mexico in Santa Fe, is a prominent promoter. He started Fiesta Santa Fe in 1919 and the Southwest India Exhibition in 1922 (now known as Indian Market). When he tried to pull out a summer program for Texas women, many rebel artists said the city should not promote artificial tourism at the expense of its artistic culture. The writers and artists formed the Old Santa Fe Association and defeated the plan. The old "mud city" - a novice modernist laughed at his stone houses - was transformed into a city that boasted of its peculiarities and a blend of tradition and modernity.
Nuevomexicanos
At the end of the 20th and early 20th centuries, the dominant Anglo-American degrades Hispanics living in New Mexico to second class social status, due to unfamiliarity and prejudice. Some of them "Anglo" are ethnocentric, denouncing Hispanic/Mexican culture and questioning the appropriateness of society for democracy. Some claim, in response, they establish the identity of "American Spain" in the early example of cultural citizenship (expressing Americanism through ethnic identity) but this is strongly denied by Richard Nostrand.
World War I gave Hispanics an opportunity to show American citizenship by participating in the war effort. Like "new immigrants" in the northeastern cities, who also built a double identity, members of the middle class Nuevomexicano happily participated in the war effort. They unite their heritage images with American patriotic symbols, especially in the Spanish-language press. Nuevomexicano politicians and public figures recruited rural masses to cause war overseas and on the front lines, including the struggle for women's suffrage. The support of the Anglo New Mexico establishment helped their efforts. Their wartime donations improved the condition of minority citizenship for Nuevomexicanos but did not completely eradicate social imbalances. For example, no Hispanics - even the son of a regent - are allowed into fraternity at a state university.
Anglo and Hispanic people work together because the prosperous and poor Hispanics can choose and they are more than Anglo. Around 1920, the term "Spanish-American" replaced "Mexico" in a polite society and in political debates. The new term serves the interests of both groups. For Spanish speakers Spanish sparks Spanish, not Mexico, given the romantic past of the colonial past and suggests the future of equality in Anglo-dominated America. For Anglo, on the other hand, it is a useful term that enhances the image of the country, since the old picture as a "Mexican" land suggests the violence and disturbance associated with the country's civil war in the early 20th century. This has hampered capital investment and reorganized state campaigns. The new term suggests that "American Spain" belongs to a true "American" political culture, making the established order appear more democratic.
New arrivals
In the 20th century immigrants and migrants brought new skills, views and values, the modernization of a very traditional country culture. They include Midwestern farmers trying to cultivate moist plants into the desert climate, Texas oilmen, tuberculosis patients seeking healing in the dry air (before proper antibiotics are found), artists who make Taos a national cultural center, a New Dealer who seeks to modernize the country as quickly as possible and repairing infrastructure, soldiers and aviators from all directions who come for training in many military bases, noting the scientists who came to Los Alamos to make super weapons, and stay, and retirees from the cold air of climes. They bring in money and new ideas. The country's population gradually adopted more than the national standard culture, losing some of its unique qualities.
The building for the Supreme Court of the State was built during the Great Depression as a WPA project, completed in 1937. This is an example of the various projects that the Democratic administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt collaborated with countries in order to improve infrastructure, invest in facilities, and make people work. Prior to the project, the Supreme Court met in the basement of the state capitol.
Women's choice
Movement of suffrage in the country works hard to get women votes but is hindered by the conservatism of politicians and the Catholic Church. The New Mexico legislation was one of the last in 1920 to ratify the 19th Amendment of the US Constitution. Thereafter, there has been a dramatic increase in political participation by both Anglo and Hispanic women, as well as strong mobilization efforts by the major parties to win the support of women voters.
World War II
New Mexico is proportionately suffering from losing more troops than any other country in the country. The state leads in national war ties and has fifty federal installations, including glider and bombardier training schools. The country was quickly modernized during the war, when 65,000 young men (and 700 young women) joined the service, where they received various technical trainings and saw the outside world, much for the first time. Federal spending brings wartime prosperity, along with high wages, jobs for everyone, rationing and shortcomings. The federal facility continues to be a major contributor to the country's economy in the postwar years.
The remote isolated Los Alamos Research Center was developed in the New Mexico mountains as a research facility, opened in 1943 for the purpose of developing the world's first atomic bomb. A team of scientists and engineers were recruited to work on this project. The first test on the Trinity Site in the wilderness of the Alamogordo and Gunnery Range bombings, now known as the White Sands Missile Range, 28 miles southeast of San Antonio, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945 ushered in the atomic age. New Mexico has become a world-class science center. High-altitude balloon experiments from Holloman Air Force Base caused the debris to be found near Roswell, New Mexico (The Roswell Incident) in 1947. This allegedly led to the persistent (but unproved) claims by a handful of people that the government had captured and concealed the corpse extraterrestrial and utility equipment.
Albuquerque thrived after the war. The country quickly emerged as a leader in the research and development of nuclear, solar, and geothermal energy. The Sandia National Laboratories, founded in 1949, undertook special nuclear research and weapon development at Kirtland Air Force Base south of Albuquerque and in Livermore, California.
Environmentalism
Since the late 19th century, New Mexico and other arid West countries have sought to assert sovereign control over water allocation policies within their boundaries. In the 1990s the legislature debated H.R. 128, the proposed State Water Sovereignty Protection Act. Since the passage of the Newlands Act in 1902, Western countries have benefited from federal water projects. Regardless of these projects, water allocation remains a politically charged issue throughout the 20th century. Most countries have sought to limit federal control over the distribution of water, preferring to allocate water under the discredited doctrine of previous appropriations.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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