A number of hypotheses exist on many of the key issues concerning horse domestication . Although horses appear in the art of Paleolithic caves as early as 30,000 BC, these are wild horses and may be hunted for meat.
How and when a contested horse is disputed. The clearest evidence of the early use of horses as a means of transportation is from the burial of a horse carriage dated c. 2000 BC. However, more and more evidence supports the hypothesis that horses were domesticated in Eurasia Steppes around 3500 BC; Recent discoveries in the context of Botai culture show that the Botai settlement in Kazakhstan's Akmola Province is the earliest horse domestication location.
The use of horses scattered throughout Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work and warfare.
Video Domestication of the horse
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The horse domestication date depends on a certain degree on the definition of "domestication". Some zoologists define "domestication" as human control over seedling, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples with changes in the size and variability of the ancient horse population. Other researchers saw broader evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of work activity; weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts; and lifestyle patterns of human culture. There is also evidence that horses are kept as meat animals before being trained as working animals.
Efforts to sort out domestication by genetic studies or the analysis of physical remains are based on the assumption that there is a genotype separation of pets and wild populations. Such separations appear to have occurred, but dates based on such methods can only produce the latest expected date dates for domestication without excluding the possibility of an unknown period from the previous gene flow between wild and domestic populations (which will occur naturally as long as the domesticated populations are stored in habitats wild population). Furthermore, all modern horse populations retain the ability to return to a wild state, and all wild horses are domestic; that is, they descend from an ancestor who escaped from captivity.
Whether one adopts a narrow definition of zoology from domestication or a broader cultural definition that relies on a series of zoological and archaeological evidence affecting the time frame chosen for horse domestication. The date of 4000 BC is based on evidence that includes the emergence of dental pathology associated with bitting, changes in cutting practices, changes in the human economy and settlement patterns, the depiction of horses as symbols of power in artifacts, and the appearance of horse bones. in a man's grave. On the other hand, measurable size changes and increased variability associated with domestication occur later, around 2500-2000 BC, as seen in the remaining horses found at the Haros-Csepel site in Hungary, the Bell Beaker cultural settlement.
The use of horses scattered throughout Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work and warfare. Horses and donkeys on the farm use a breastplate or yoke armor that is more suited to the ox, which is not as efficient as harnessing the full power of the animal as a soft horse pony that emerges over the next few millennia.
Maps Domestication of the horse
Predecessor for domestic horses
A 2005 study analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from a worldwide worldwide range, from 53,000 year old fossils to contemporary horses. Their analysis places all equids into a single clade, or group with a common ancestor, consisting of three distinct genetic species: Hippidion , a New World Legged Horse, and a true horse. The true horse, which ranges from western Europe to eastern Beringia, including prehistoric horses and the Przewalski Horse, as well as what is now a modern domestic horse, belonging to a Holarctic species. More detailed analysis of horses actually classifies them into two main classes. One of these clades, which seems to have been restricted to North America, is now extinct. Other clades are widely distributed from North America to central Europe, northern and southern Pleistocene ice. It became extinct in Beringia about 14,200 years ago, and across America about 10,000 years ago. However, this clade persists in Eurasia, and it is from these horses that all domestic horses appear to descend. These horses show little philosophical structure, perhaps reflecting their high levels of mobility and adaptability.
Therefore, today's domestic horses are classified as Equus ferus caballus . There is no genetic origin of the original wild horse that exists today, other than the never domesticated Przewalski Horse. The Przewalski has 66 chromosomes, however, compared to 64 among modern pets, and their Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) forms a different cluster. Genetic evidence suggests that modern Przewalski horse is derived from a different regional gene pool in the eastern part of the Eurasian steppe, not from the same genetic group that gave rise to a modern pet horse. Nevertheless, evidence such as Lascaux cave painting suggests that ancient wild horses that some researchers now label "Tarpe subtypes" may resemble Przewalski's horse in their general appearance: large heads, dun colors, thick necks, stiff upright, and relatively short,.
Ice Age horses are hunted for meat in Europe and across the Eurasian steppes and in North America by early modern humans. Many sites are killing there and many cave paintings in Europe show what they are like. Many of these Ice Age subspecies die during the rapid climate change associated with the end of the last Ice Age or hunted by humans, especially in North America, where horses become completely extinct.
Classification by body type and conformation, the absence of DNA availability for the study, once stated that there are about four basic wild prototypes, which are thought to have been developed by adaptation to their environment prior to domestication. There is a competing theory; some argue that four prototypes are separate species or subspecies, while others state that the prototype is a physically different manifestation of the same species. However, recent research has shown that only one wild species and all different body types are entirely the result of selective breeding or landrace adaptation after domestication. However, the most common theory of the prototype from which all modern breeds allegedly have evolved shows other than as the Tarpan subtype, there is the following basic prototype:
- "Subspecies of Warmblood" or "Forest Horse" (once proposed as Equus ferus silvaticus , also known as Diluvial Horse), which then evolved into a variety which was then called Equus ferus germanicus . This prototype may have contributed to the development of warm water horses in northern Europe, as well as older "heavy horses" like Ardennais.
- The "Draft" subspecies, a small, sturdy, large-bodied animal with a thick coat of hair, which appears in Northern Europe, is adapted to a cold and humid climate, somewhat resembling today's concept horses and even a Shetland pony.
- The "Oriental" subspecies (once proposed as Equus agilis), a taller, slimmer, smoother, lighter animal emerging in West Asia, adapt to a hot, dry climate. It is thought to be the ancestor of modern Arab horses and Akhal-Teke.
Only two "never" domesticized "wild" groups survived the historic period, the Przewalski horse ( Equus ferus przewalski ), and Tarpan ( Equus ferus ferus ). Tarpan became extinct at the end of the 19th century and Przewalski's horse was threatened with extinction; it became extinct in the wild during the 1960s, but was reintroduced in the late 1980s into two preservatives in Mongolia. Although researchers like Marija Gimbutas theorized that the horse of the Chalcolithic period is Przewalski's, the latest genetic studies show that Przewalski's horse is not an ancestor to modern pet horse. Other subspecies of Equus ferus appear to have existed and may have been the stock of the lowered pigs.
Genetic evidence
A study of 2014 comparing DNA from ancient horse bones that preceded domestication and compared it with modern horse DNA, found 125 genes that correlated with domestication. Some physical, affect the development of muscles and limbs, heart strength and balance. Others are related to cognitive functioning and are most likely essential to tame the horse, including social behavior, learning ability, fear response, and friendliness. The DNA used in this study originated from horse bones 16,000 to 43,000 years ago, and therefore the exact changes that occurred at the time of domestication had not been sequenced.
The claws of horses and horses can be analyzed separately by looking at the parts of DNA that are passed exclusively along the mother (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA) or the father line (Y-chromosome or Y-DNA). DNA studies show that there may be some domestication events for horses, since the number of female lines required to account for the genetic diversity of modern horses shows a minimum of 77 different ancestral horses, divided into 17 different lineages. On the other hand, the genetic evidence associated with male domestication refers to an occurrence of domestication for a number of stallions combined with the restoration of recurrent females into cattle.
A study published in 2012 that conducted genome sampling at 300 work horses from the local area as well as a review of previous studies on archeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-DNA shows that horses were initially domesticated in the western part of the Eurasian pasture. Both stallions and stallions spread from this area, and then additional wild horses were added from local herds; Wild horses are easier to handle than wild horses. Most other parts of the world are ruled out as sites for horse domestication, either because the climate is not suitable for indigenous wild horse populations or there is no evidence of domestication.
The genes located on the Y-chromosome are inherited only from Sire to male offspring and these lines indicate a significantly reduced rate of genetic variation (aka genetic homogeneity) in modern domestic horses, far less than would be estimated based on whole genetic variation in parts the remaining. genetic material. This suggests that relatively few stallions are domesticated, and that it is unlikely that many male offspring from unions between wild horses and domestic horses are included in early breeding stocks of livestock.
The genes located in the mitochondrial DNA are passed along the mother's line from mother to child. Several mitochondrial DNA analyzes obtained from modern horses and horse and teeth bones from archaeological and palaeological findings have consistently shown an increase in genetic diversity in mitochondrial DNA compared with the remaining DNA, suggesting that large numbers of horses have been incorporated into horse breeding stocks previously domesticated. Variations in mitochondrial DNA are used to determine what is called a haplogroup. Haplogroup is a group of closely related haplotypes that share a common ancestor. In horses, seven major haplogroups are recognized (A-G), each with several subgroups. Some haplogroups are not distributed evenly throughout the world, suggesting the addition of local wild horses to the stock of livestock. One haplotype (Lusitano group C) is exclusively found in the Iberian Peninsula, leading to the hypothesis that the Iberian peninsula or North Africa is an independent origin for horse domestication. However, until there is additional analysis of nuclear DNA and a better understanding of the genetic structure of the earliest domestic herd, this theory can not be confirmed or denied. It is still possible that a second, independent, domestication site may exist but, by 2012, research does not justify or deny the hypothesis.
Although horse domestication extends within a short period of time, it is still possible that domestication begins with a culture, which continues the techniques and breeding of livestock. It is possible that two "wild" subspecies persist when all other groups of "wild" horses die because others may be more suitable for domestic taming and selective breeding that gives rise to modern domestic horses..
Archaeological evidence
The evidence for horse domestication comes from three types of sources: 1) changes in skeletons and ancient horse teeth; 2) changes in the geographic distribution of ancient horses, especially the introduction of horses to areas where there are no wild horses; and 3) archaeological sites containing artifacts, images, or evidence of changes in human behavior related to horses.
Archaeological evidence including horses remains buried in human graves; changes in age and sex of horses killed by humans; the appearance of the horses; equipment such as bits or other types of horse nails; horses are buried with equipment intended for use by horses, such as trains; and depictions of horses used for riding, driving, composing work, or symbols of human strength.
Few of these categories, taken by themselves, provide an indisputable proof of domestication, but are combined with a persuasive argument.
Horse castrated with train
The most ancient, but most convincing, proof of domestication comes from a site where the bones of the horse's legs and skull, probably originally attached to the skin, are interred with the remains of trains in at least 16 Sintashta and Petrovka cultural cemeteries. It is located on the southeastern steppes of the Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural River and the Upper Tobol River, an area now divided between southern Russia and northern Kazakhstan. Petrovka is slightly slower than and probably grown from Sintashta, and the two complexes together stretch around 2100-1700 BC. Some of these tombs contain the remains of as many as eight horses that were sacrificed placed above, and next to the graves.
In all grave trains dated, the head and nails of a pair of horses were placed in a grave that used to contain horse-drawn carriages. The proof of the train in this cemetery is inferred from the impression of two opposing wheels on the grave floor separating 1.2 to 1.2 m; in many cases the rest of the vehicle leaves no trace. In addition to a pair of disc-shaped "cheek horns", the ancient predecessor to bits of shank or modern bit rings, are placed in pairs next to each of the sacrifices of the horse's head and hooves. The inner faces of the discs have protruding bulges or earrings that will stick to the horse's lips when the control is pulled to the opposite side. Studded cheekpieces are a new and heavy enough control device that comes with the train.
All the carriage tombs were dated containing wheel shows, horse bones, weapons (arrows and javelin, axes, daggers, or brick heads), human skeletal remains, and cheeks. Because they were buried in teams with two cheeks and studded cheeks, the evidence was so convincing that these meadow horses in 2100-1700 BC had been domesticated. Shortly after this burial period, the expansion of domestic horses across Europe is only slightly explosive. In perhaps 500 years, there is evidence of a horse carriage in Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. With 500 years, horse carts have spread to China.
Indicator of skeletal domestication
Some researchers do not consider animals to be "tamed" until they show physical changes consistent with selective breeding, or at least born and fully grown in captivity. Until then, they classified captive animals as "domesticated" only. Those who held this theory of domestication showed a change in detectable bone measurements among horse bones found from middens dated around 2500 BC in eastern Hungary on the Bell-Beaker site, and later Bronze Age sites on the steppes of Russia, Spain, and Eastern Europe. Bone horse from this context shows increased variability, thought to reflect survival under human care of both larger and smaller individuals than appears in the wild; and decreased average size, are thought to reflect the writing and restrictions in the diet. The horse population that exhibits this combination of bone changes may be domesticated. Most evidence suggests that horses are increasingly controlled by humans after about 2500 BC. However, recently there were skeletal remains found on a site in Kazakhstan that featured smaller, leaner limbs than corrected animals dated 3500 BC.
Botai Culture
Some of the most interesting evidence of early domestication comes from the Botai culture, which is found in northern Kazakhstan. The Botai Culture is a collecting culture that seems to have adopted horseback riding to hunt abundant wild horses from northern Kazakhstan between 3500-3000 BC. Botai sites do not have bovine or sheep bones; the only pet, other than a horse, is a dog. Botai settlements in this period consisted of 50-150 pit homes. The waste deposit contains tens to hundreds of thousands of animal bones removed, 65% to 99% coming from horses. Also, there is evidence found flushing the horse on this site, with fat horse milk soaked into pottery shards dating from 3500 BC. Previous hunters who live in the same region do not hunt wild horses with such success, and live for thousands of years in smaller and more shifting settlements, often containing less than 200 bones of wild animals.
The whole herd of horses was slaughtered by Botai hunters, apparently in a drive hunt. Adoption on horseback might explain the emergence of special horse hunting techniques and larger permanent settlements. Domed domestic horses could be adopted from the neighboring herding communities in the western steppes of the Ural Mountains, where the Khvalynsk culture has herds and sheep, and possibly a pet horse, as early as 4800 BC.
Other researchers argue that all Botai horses are wild, and that Botai hunters hunt wild horses on foot. As evidence, they noted that zoologists found no bone changes in Botai horses indicating domestication. In addition, as they are hunted for food, most horses remain found in Botai-culture settlements may indeed be wild. On the other hand, equestrian horses may be the same size as their wild cousins ​​and can not be distinguished by bone measurements. They also note that the age structure of horses slaughtered in Botai represents a natural demographic profile for the hunted animals, not the expected pattern if they are domesticated and elected for slaughter. However, this argument was published before the invention of the cage in Krasnyi Yar and horse dung mat at two other Botai sites.
Bit wear
The presence of bit wear indicates that horses are driven or driven, and the earliest evidence of a site in Kazakhstan dates from 3500 BC. Since horses can be driven and controlled without bits by using noseband or hackamore, and they are used even today, the lack of wear and tear on horse teeth is not conclusive proof of domestication, but the material does not produce significant physiological changes or whether they tend to be preserved for thousands of years.
Regular little use for controlling a horse can create a wear or bevel aspect in the anterior corner of the lower second premolar. The corners of the horse's mouth usually store little in the mouth "grating", the interdental space where there are no teeth, advancing from the premolars. Beets must be manipulated by humans or horses must move them with his tongue to touch the teeth. Wear and tear can be caused by a slight neglect of the frontal angle of the premolar teeth if the horse catches and releases slightly between its teeth; other wear can be created by slightly plugging the vertical front edge of the lower premolar, due to the very strong pressure of the human handler.
Modern experiments show that even pieces of leather or organic leather can create a significant aspect of wear and tear, and also indicate that the depth aspect of 3 mm or more does not appear in wild horse premolars. However, other researchers disputed both of these conclusions.
Using the 3 mm or more aspect was also found on seven premolars of the horse at two sites Botai, Botai and Kozhai 1, dated about 3500-3000 BC. Premolar Botai culture is the earliest reported example of this dental pathology in any archaeological site, and precedes the 1,000 year frame change indicator. While wearing a more than 3 mm deep aspect found on the second premolar under one horse from Dereivka in Ukraine, the Eneolithic settlement dates around 4000 BC, the dental material of one worn tooth then generates a radiocarbon date of 700-200 BC. , indicating that this horse was actually stored in a hole dug into an older Eneolithic site during the Iron Age.
Dung and coral
Soil scientists working with Sandra Olsen from the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in the Chalcolithic settlement (also called Eneolithic, or "Copper Age") Botai and Krasnyi Yar in northern Kazakhstan found layers of horse dung, dumped in unused house holes in both the settlement.. The collection and disposal of horse dung shows that horses are confined in cages or stables. An actual enclosure dated 3500-3000 BC was identified in Krasnyi Yar by a post hole pattern for a round fence, with the soil inside the fence yielding ten times more phosphorus than the ground outside. Phosphorus can represent the remains of impurities.
Geographic expansion
The advent of horses remain in human settlements in areas where they have not previously been present are other indicators of domestication. Although horse drawings appear as early as the Upper Paleolithic period in places such as Lascaux caves, France, indicate that wild horses live in areas outside the Eurasian steppes before domestication and may even have been hunted by early humans, concentrations still show that animals are deliberately captured and conceived , indicator of domestication, at least for food, otherwise should be used as worker animals.
Around 3500-3000 BC, horse bones began to appear more frequently at archaeological sites outside their distribution centers in Eurasian pastures and seen in central Europe, the middle and lower Danube valleys, and the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Evidence of horses in these areas is rare before, and as the numbers increase, larger animals also begin to appear in horse stables. This expansion is in the contemporary range with Botai culture, where there are indications that the horses were corrected and ridden. This does not mean that horses were first tamed in the meadows, but horse-chasers in the pastures must have chased more wild horses than anywhere else. This geographic expansion is interpreted by many zoologists as an early phase in the spread of a pet horse.
European wild horses are hunted up to 10% of animal bones in some Mesolitic and Neolithic settlements scattered in Spain, France, and swamplands in northern Germany, but in many other parts of Europe, including Greece, the Balkans, the British Isles and many other Europeans Middle, horse bones do not occur or are very rare on sites Mesolitik, Neolitik or Chalcolithic. In contrast, wild horse bones regularly exceed 40% of animal bones identified in the Mesolithic and Neolithic camps in the Eurasian steppes, west of the Ural Mountains.
Horse bones are rare or absent in Neolithic and Chalcolithic kitchen garbage in western Turkey, Mesopotamia, mostly Iran, South and Central Asia, and most of Europe. While horse bones have been identified at the Neolithic site in central Turkey, all of the joint equids account for less than 3% of the animal bones. In these three percent, horses are less than 10%, with 90% or more of equids represented by onagers (Equus hemionus) or other equid like donkeys that become extinct, Equus hydruntinus Onagers are the most common native wild equids of the Near East. They were hunted in Syria, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia; and pet mules ( Equus asinus ) were imported into Mesopotamia, probably from Egypt, but the wild horses did not live there.
Other evidence of geographic expansion
In the North Caucasus, Maikop cultural settlements and cemeteries c. 3300 BC containing horse bones and horse drawings. A decoration of nineteen horses painted in black and red was found in one of Maikop's tombs. The widespread appearance of bones and horse drawings on the Maikop site suggests to some observers that horseback riding began in the Maikop period.
Later, the images of horses, identified by their short ears, the flowing mane, and the tail that burst on the docks, began appearing in the artistic medium in Mesopotamia during the Akkadian period, 2300-2100 BC. The word for "horse", literally translated as a mountain ass, first appeared in the Sumerian documents during the Third Ur dynasty, around 2100-2000 BC. The kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur seem to feed the horse to the lion for royal entertainment, perhaps indicating that the horse is still considered more exotic than useful, but King Shulgi, circa 2050 BC, compares himself to "a horse on a highway that sweeps its tail" , and one picture of his government shows a man apparently riding a horse at full speed. The horses were imported into Mesopotamia and the Near East lowlands in greater numbers after 2000 BC in connection with the beginning of the wars war.
Further expansion, to the lowlands of the Near East and northwest China, also occurred around 2000 BC, again apparently simultaneously with chariots. Although the Equus of undetermined bone species was found in some of the Neolithic Late sites in China dated before 2000 BCE, Equus caballus or bilius fusses first bones appeared in several sites and in significant amounts on the cultural sites of Qijia and Siba, 2000-1600 BC, in Gansu and the northwestern province of China. The Qijia culture is related to the Eurasian steppe culture, as shown by the similarities between the Qijia and the late Bronze Age step metaphes, so perhaps through these contacts the domesticated horses first become frequent in northwestern China.
In 2008, archaeologists announced the discovery of rock art in the northern region of Somalia, Dhambalin, which researchers say is one of the earliest known depictions of a horse-riding hunter. Rock art uses Ethiopian-Arabic style, dated 1000 to 3000 BC.
Horse image as power symbol
Around 4200-4000 BC, more than 500 years before geographic expansion proved by horse bone, a new grave type, named after the tomb in Suvorovo, appears north of the Danube delta on the coastal steppes of Ukraine near Izmail. The tomb of Suvorovo is similar to and probably derived from a previous cemetery tradition in the steppe around the Dnieper River. Some of Suvorovo's tombs contain polished stone pole shaped horse heads and horse's tooth beads. The previous steppes also contained polished stone blades, some carved with the animal's head shape. Settlements in the contemporary steppes with Suvorovo, such as Sredni Stog II and Dereivka on the Dnieper River, contain 12% -52% horse bones.
When Suvorovo's grave appears in the Danube delta pasture, the horse's head horses also appear in some of the original farming towns of Tripolye and Gumelnitsa cultures in Romania and Moldova today, near the tomb of Suvorovo. These farming cultures had not previously used rock-patterned hooves, and the bones of rare or non-existent horses at their settlement sites. Perhaps their horse's head rod is from Suvorovo immigrants. The people of Suvorovo in turn obtained many copper ornaments from the cities of Tripolye and Gumelnitsa. After this episode of contact and commerce, but still during the period 4200-4000 BC, about 600 agricultural cities in the Balkans and lower Danube valley, some of which have been occupied for 2000 years, are abandoned. Copper mining stops at the Balkan copper mine, and cultural traditions associated with agricultural cities end in the Balkans and lower Danube valleys. The collapse of this "Old Europe" has been linked to the uplifted immigration of Indo-European fighters. The collapse can be caused by intensive warfare, which is where there is some evidence; and warfare can be exacerbated by mounting attacks; and the horses' horses have been interpreted as showing the introduction of a pet horse and riding before the collapse.
However, the raids were installed only one possible explanation for this tricky event. Environmental degradation, ecological degradation of thousands of years of agriculture, and the exhaustion of easily mined copper oxide ore are also cited as causal factors.
Artifact
The horned horn objects found at Dereivka and other sites of contemporary Suvorovo have been identified as cheeks or '' psalia '' for parts of horses. This identification is no longer widely accepted, as these objects have not been found to be linked to horse bones, and can have many other functions. However, through microscopic research, it has been established that many bone tools in Botai are used to smooth raw leather straps, and raw leather straps may have been used to produce raw leather straps and leather straps, useful for horse spikes. Similar thong-smoothers are known from many other steppe settlements, but it is not known how the ropes are used. The oldest artefacts clearly identified as hooves - bits, bridles, cheeks, or other types of horse equipment - are rod-shaped cheek horns associated with horse-drawn carriage, on the Sintashta-Petrovka website.
Horses are buried in human graves
The oldest archaeological indicator of the changing relationship between horses and humans is the appearance of about 4800-4400 BC horse bones and carved images of horses at the Kharcynithik tomb of early Khvalynsk culture and the culture of Samara in the central Russian Volga region. At the Khvalynsk cemetery near the town of Khvalynsk, 158 graves of this period were excavated. Of these, 26 graves contain parts of domestic animals that are sacrificed, and additional sacrifices occur in ritual deposits on the surface of the native soil above the grave. Ten graves containing lower hooves; two of which also contained bones of cows and sheep. At least 52 sheep or pet goats, 23 pets, and 11 horses were sacrificed in Khvalynsk. The inclusion of horses with cattle and sheep and wild animal exceptions clearly shows that horses are symbolically categorized with pets.
At S'yezzhe, the contemporary burial of Samara culture, part of two horses is placed on top of a group of human graves. A pair of horses here represented by the head and nails, probably initially attached to the skin. The same ritual - using hide with the head and lower leg bones as a symbol for the whole animal - is used for many pet cattle and sheep casualties in Khvalynsk. Images of horses carved from bones are placed in ocher deposits on the ground at S'yezzhe and occur at several other sites in the same period in the middle and lower Volga region. Together, these archaeological guidelines suggest that horses have a symbolic interest in the Khvalynsk and Samara cultures they did not possess before, and that they were related to humans, pet cattle, and pet sheep. Thus, the earliest phase in horse domestication may have started during the period 4800-4400 BC.
Methods of domestication
Equidae dies in the western hemisphere at the end of the last glacial period. A question posed is why and how horses avoid this fate on the Eurasian continent. It has been theorized that domestication saves species. While environmental conditions for horse survival in Europe are somewhat more favorable in Eurasia than in America, the same stress that caused extinction to Mammoth had an effect on the horse population. Thus, sometime after 8000 BC, the approximate date of extinction in America, humans in Eurasia may start raising horses as a source of livestock, and by keeping them in captivity, may have helped preserve the species. Horses also fit into six core criteria for livestock domestication, and thus, it can be said, "choosing" to live near humans.
One model of horse domestication begins with individual foals being kept as pets while adult horses are slaughtered for meat. Foals are relatively small and easy to handle. Horses behave as herd animals and require friendships to flourish. Historical and modern data show that foals can and will bind humans and other domestic animals to meet their social needs. So domestication may begin with young horses repeatedly made into pets from time to time, preceding the great discovery that these pets can be ridden or working.
However, there is disagreement over the definition of the term domestication . One interpretation of domestication is that it should include the physiological changes associated with being selectively raised in captivity, and not just "domesticated." It has been noted that traditional societies around the world (both hunter-gatherers and horticulturists) routinely tame individuals from wild species, usually with babies raised with hands whose parents have been killed, and these animals are not necessarily "domesticated".
On the other hand, some researchers look at an example from historical times to hypothesize how domestication occurs. For example, while Native American cultures capture and ride horses from the 16th century on, most tribes do not exercise significant control over their breeding, so their horses develop genotypes and phenotypes tailored to the use and climatic conditions in which they are kept , making them more of a landrace than a planned generation as defined by modern standards, but still "domesticated".
Driving versus riding
The difficult question is if the first pet horse is driven or driven. While the most emphatic evidence suggests that the horse was first used to pull the train in battle, there is strong, though indirect, evidence to drive first, especially by Botai. A bit of wear and tear may be correlated with the rise, although, as demonstrated by modern hackamore, horses can be ridden without a bit by using ropes and other obsolete materials to make binding equipment around the nose. So the absence of clear evidence of horseback riding early in the notes does not solve the question.
Thus, on the one hand, logic shows that horses will be driven long before they are moved. But it is also much more difficult to collect this evidence, because the materials needed to ride a horse - a simple candy or blanket - will not survive as an artifact, and apart from a slight tooth decay, bone changes in riding animals are certainly not too flashy. The direct evidence of a horse being driven is much stronger.
On the other hand, others argue that bit wear and tear is not always correlated with riding. Some theorists speculate that horses can be controlled from the ground by placing a little in the mouth, connected to the lead rope, and leading the animals while pulling the cart or a primitive plow. Since the oxen are usually degraded to this task in Mesopotamia, it is possible that the early plow may have been pursued with horses, and little may be significant as part of agrarian development rather than as a technology of warfare.
Horses in historical battles
While horseback riding may have been done during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, and the disappearance of "Old Europe" settlements may be linked to attacks by horsemen, the most obvious influence by horses on ancient wars is by pulling buggies, introduced c. 2000 BC.
The horses of the Bronze Age were relatively small by modern standards, which led some theorists to believe that the ancient horses were too small to drive and were certainly encouraged. Herodotus's description of Sigynnae, the steppe people who keep horses too small to drive but very efficient at drawing trains, illustrates this stage. However, since the horses were generally smaller than the modern horses until the Middle Ages, this theory was highly questionable.
The Iron Age in Mesopotamia saw the rise of the cavalry installed as a tool of war, as evidenced by the success of archery tactics used by various colonial colonists such as Parthia. Over time, the train gradually became obsolete.
Iron Age Horse is still relatively small, probably 12.2 to 14.2 hands (50 to 58 inches, 127 to 147 cm) tall (measured at the withers). It is shorter overall than the average height of modern horse riding, which ranges from about 14.2 to 17.2 hands (58 to 70 inches, 147 to 178 cm). However, small horses were successfully used as light cavalry for centuries. For example, Fell horses, believed to have originated from Roman cavalry horses, can comfortably carry adult adults (albeit with a somewhat limited ground clearance) with an average height of 13.2 hands (54 inches, 137 cm). Similarly, Arab horses are recorded for short and dense backbones, and the success of Muslims against the heavy warriors installed in Europe shows that a 14.2-footed horse (58 inches, 147 cm) can easily carry an adult human adult to in battle.
The fighters are fitted like the Scythians, Huns and Vandals of ancient Rome, the Mongols who invaded Eastern Europe in the 7th to 14th centuries, Muslim warriors from the 8th to the 14th century, and the American Indians of the century 16 to 19. centuries each show an effective form of light cavalry.
See also
- Anthrozoology
- nomad riding
- List of horse breeds
References
External links
- "Horses, Wheels and Languages, How the Bronze Age Riders of European Dance Shaped the Modern World", David W Anthony, 2007
- The Institute of Ancient Equestrian Studies (IAES)
- Genetics and Evolution Research Information Network
- Horses may be first tamed in Kazakhstan
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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